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PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 



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€lRxm'^on It^ss S^rus 



THE MODERN 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



IN ITS 



RELATION TO ANCIENT GREEK 



BY 



E. M. GELDART, B.A. 

Formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford ; 
Modern Language Master at the Manchester Free Gra?nniar School. 






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AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 



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PREFACE 



In sending out into the world the present volume, I have 
little else to say by way of prefatory remark than to express 
the sense of the obligations I am under to those who have 
.helped and encouraged me. Foremost among these must 
stand the name of F. W. Walker, Esq., late Fellow of Corpus 
Christi College, and Head Master of the Manchester Free 
Grammar School, my kind friend and instructor, who is the 
cause, in a sense which he will sufficiently understand, of 
the publication of this work. 

My best thanks are also due to Professor Jowett for 
looking over a portion of the same while it was yet in 
embryo, and for most valuable suggestions which I have 
attempted to follov/ out; and to my friends S. Verses and 
A. Pantazides for the loan c^ various works which have been 
of indispensable service to me in the preparation of the final 
chapter of this book. Nor can I refrain from expressing 
my indebtedness to the learned lectures, and ever-ready 
willingness to communicate information with which all who 
have attended the public instructions of the Professor of 
Comparative Philology are so well acquainted, and which 
have had no unimportant influence in moulding the views 
hereinafter set forth. From Professor Gandell, and Dr. 

h 



VI PREFACE. 

Hessey, Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint, I have also 
obtained valuable information. 

To Professor Blackie of Edinburgh my thanks are due i 
for very kind and unexpected encouragement. He will 
easily discover where I have derived help from his interesting » 
treatise on Greek Pronunciation. 

Last, but not least, I must tender my warmest thanks to 
the Rev. Hermann Eduard Marotsky, Minister of the Ger- J 
man Church, Wright Street, Manchester, without the encou- | 
ragement and confirmation afforded by whose critical know- - 
ledge, my concluding essay on the dangerous domain of 
theology would hardly have been hazarded. 

I have no right however to be silent on other obligations 
of a less personal nature in themselves, though in one case 
at least proceeding from a personal and esteemed friend, the 
Rev. George Perkins, M. A., author of the lucid and able 
article in the Cambridge Journal of Philology for December, 
1869, entitled ^Rhythm versus Metre,' to which I am much 
indebted. 

Other works which I have advantageously consulted are 
Schleicher's ^ Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik,' 
Renan's * Eclaircissements tires des Langues semitiques sur 
quelques points de la Prononciation grecque,' Mullach's 
' Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,' Liidemann's 
^ Lehrbuch der Neugr. Sprache,' Prof. Telfy's ^ Studien iiber 
Alt- und Neugriechen und die Lautgeschichte der Griechi- 
schen Sprache,' Sophocles' ^ Modern Greek Grammar' and 
' Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.' 

Finally, I would take this opportunity of thanking the 
Curators of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford for their 
great kindness in granting me the use of the room in which 



PREFACE. Vll 

I delivered a course of lectures which form the foundation of 
the present treatise. 

If I have passed over any in silence I hope it will be 
understood that such silence is unintentional. 

In conclusion, I will give some account of the best 
books to be used in the study of modern Greek, especially 
in its relations with ancient Greek. The most instructive 
works on the subject with which I am acquainted are Pro- 
fessor Mullach's ' Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgar- 
sprache,' Sophocles' * Modern Greek Grammar,' and his 
^ Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.' All three of these 
works contain some account of the development of modern 
from ancient Greek; and each supplies in some measure 
the deficiencies of the others. Professor Mullach's work is, 
on the whole, the most scholarly and exhaustive. His account 
of the Greek dialects, ancient and modern, is specially valu- 
able. All would have been better for a larger and wider 
recognition of the discoveries of modern philology in the 
region of comparative grammar. Sophocles' w^orks, espe- 
cially his Grammar, require to be used with caution. For 
the headings * Ancient' and * Modern' which he places over 
his various paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, 
^ Language of PoHte Society' and ' Language of the Common 
People,' or 'Cultivated' and Vernacular;' for the so-called 
ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be found 
in the more cultivated modern Greek of the middle ages. 
Where, however, the so-called modern form has completely 
supplanted the classical, as in iypd^pcao for iypdcpov, ypd(p€(TaL 
for ypci(ji€L or ypcKpj], the fact should be noticed. Again, in 
other ways truth is sacrificed by Mr. Sophocles to system, 
as when he gives tov irarepa, Tov civbpa, as the modern Greek 

d 2 



Vlll PREFACE, 

for rov TTarpos, rod dv^pos. These forms occur no doubt, but 
the classical forms are more common even in the vernacular, 
in which however the metaplastic nominatives Trnrepas and 
ai/dpas have supplanted TraTrjp and dvqp. For the study of the 
popular language as contained in the Klephtic ballads, &c., 
Passow's ' Carmina popularia Greciae recentioris' renders 
all other collections superfluous. For the history of modern 
Greek literature Peucker's ' Neugriechische Grammatik ' con- 
tains some valuable contributions, which may be further 
supplemented from the NeoeXXy/yt/ci) ^tXoXoyta, a work lately 
published in Athens, and forming a biographical history of 
mediaeval and modern Greek literature^ 



CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER I. 

Introduction. 

Causes for the neglect of the study of modern Greek. Antiquarian 
prejudice; counteracted by utilitarianism. Political insignificance 
of Greece : hopeful signs. Obscurity of modern Greek literature : 
actual but unmerited. Direct practical utility of an acquaintance 
with the language. Reasons why it should be studied by scholars 
and theologians. The^iDbstacle presented by the Erasmian system 
of pronunciation, pp. 1-7. 

CHAPTER n. 

On the Pronunciation of Greek. 

The opinion of Schleicher. What is meant by the general identity of 
modern and ancient pronunciation. Modern pronunciation either 
barbarized or legitimately developed. Difficulties of the former 
alternative. Examination of evidence regarding the original pro- 
nunciation of each letter. I. Vowels. H. Consonants. III. The 
aspirate. General conclusion, pp. 8-40. 

CHAPTER HI. 

Accent and Quantity. 

Their connection in the law of accentuation. All modern Greek 
vowels not isochronous. Syllables not necessarily lengthened by 
stress. Real explanation of the supposed conflict between accent 
and quantity traced to our use of the Latin accent in Greek. 
Erasmus and the bear. Insular character of our prejudice. Stress 
brings out, but does not obscure quantity. How is emphasis 



X CONTENTS. 

given? View of Mr. W. G. Clark. Dominant importance of 
rhythm in poetry. Opposition of accent and quantity as the 
foundation of verse not absolute. Importance of quantity in 
accentual verse. Accent heard in quantitative poetry. Musical 
rhythm. Error of ignoring the importance of ictus. Significance 
of accent in ancient poetry. The rhythm of ancient Greek prose 
destroyed by ignoring the accent, pp. 41-67. 

CHAPTER IV. 

On the Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
Accidence. 

Origin not one, but various. Connection of grammar, logic, and meta- 
physic. No rigid line of demarcation. Mere accidence indepen- 
dent in a sense of the progress of thought. Levelling tendency. 
Tendency to metaplastic formations : common to ancient and 
modern Greek. Many apparent metaplasms not simply such. 
The preservation of archaisms in the vulgar language. Analogies 
in English. The Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint. The prin- 
ciple of extended analogy. Phrynichus and modern Greek forms. 
The mixed declensions. Dialectic influences. Archaisms and 
dialectic forms of the Septuagint not artificial. The Macedonian 
dynasty and the kolvtj didXe/cTos. The disappearance of the dative 
case, pp. 68-84. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
Syntax. 

Difference in modes of expression between modern and ancient Greek. 
Compound tenses. Tendency to waste words, pp. 85-90. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Modern Greek Phraseology. 

Euphemism. The influence of philosophy; the Ionic philosophers. 
The Eleatics, Sophists, and Rhetoricians. Modern Greek particles 
more explicit but less expressive than ancient. Socrates. The 
Cyrenaics. The Cynics. Plato. The Stoics, pp. 91-100. 



CONTENTS. XI 



CHAPTER VIL 



The Historical Development of Modern from 
Ancient Greek. 

Hellenistic Greek. The Macedonian age. The language of the 
Septuagint and the New Testament not simply Hebraistic. Mo- 
dernism of the Septuagint : of Polybius : and of the New Testa- 
ment. New religious meaning of certain words. The age of 
Diocletian. Nubian inscriptions. The Byzantine period. Apo- 
phthegmata Patrum. Theophanes. Malalas. Leo the philoso- 
pher. Porphyrogenitus. Theophanes Continuatus. Specimens of 
popular language in Scylitzes and Anna Comnena. Close of 
the mediaeval period. Theodorus Prodromus the first modern 
Greek writer, pp. 101-113. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Dialects of Modern Greece. 

Asiatic. Chiotic. Cretan. Cyprian. Peloponnesian. Dialect of the 
Ionian Islands. The Tsakonian dialect. Its Doricisms. Its de- 
clension : and conjugation. Traces of Semitic elements. Tsako- 
nian probably a lingua franca. Specimens of Tsakonian. Albanian 
considered as modern Graeco-italic. Its alphabet partly Greek 
and partly Latin. The infinitive mood. Conjugation. Pronouns. 
-Prepositions. Numerals, pp. 1 14-137. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Modern Greek Literature. 

Ptochoprodromus. Sethos. The Book of the Conquest. Belthandros 
and Chrysantza. Gorgilas. Chortakes. Scuphos. Kornaros. 
Rhegas. Cumas. Coraes. Oekonomos. Nerulos. Angelica 
Palle. Christopulos. Klephtic ballads. Belief in genii. Analo- 
gies in the Old Testament. Cultivated Literature of the present 
day. Tricupes. Roides. Asopios. Rangabes. Zalacostas. Va- 
laorites. Conclusion, pp. 138-177. 



Xil CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX I. 

On the Greek of the G-ospels of St. John and 
St. Luke. 

Preliminary considerations. Greek of the New Testament popular, 
but not vernacular. Luke and the Acts somewhat artificial. 
Frequency of modernisms in St. John. List of striking modern- 
isms. The Revelation. The Gospel according to St. Luke. His 
modernisms. The Acts, Agreement with the results of German 
criticism, pp. 179-188. 

APPENDIX II. 
A Short Lexilogus, pp. 189-208. 



Index of Greek and Albanian Words, pp. 209-216. 



CORRIGENDA. 



Page 33, line 9, /or ^fiepdaMos read ^/xepdakios, 
.» 35» " "J^forriveareadriveov, 
„ 130, „ 26, and elsewhere, /or 'ihe read kdi, 
„ 141, „ i/i^, for TT€pi(3o7jTov read Trepi(3or)7ov, 



CHAPTER I. 



Introduction. 

The present spoken and written language of Greece is 
one of the most remarkable phenomena in the whole field of 
philology, and none the less remarkable, perhaps, is the 
small amount of notice^which it has met with. 

It is a strange and unparalleled fact, that one of the oldest 
known languages in the world, a language in which the! 
loftiest and deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the 
wisest thinkers, the noblest, holiest and best of teachers, i 
have directly or indirectly found their utterance in the far-j 
off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at this day be thel 
living speech of millions throughout the East of Europe ' 
and various parts of Asia Minor and Africa ; that it should 
have survived the fall of empires, and risen again and again 
from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged but never 
drowned by floods of invading barbarians, Romans, Celts, 
Slaves, Goths and Vandals, Avars, Huns, Franks and Turks ; 
often the language of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ; 
with features seared by years and service, yet still essentially 
the same ; instinct with the fire of life, and beautiful with the 
memory of the past. 

Yet it is perhaps still stranger, that while the records of 
its youth and manhood form the Hfelong study of thousands 

B 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

in England, France, Germany, and the rest of Europe; 
nevertheless, almost the first symptoms of sickness and 
decay were the signals for us all to forsake it, few of us 
waiting to see whether its natural vigour had carried it on 
to a green old age, or whether, as most of us too easily 
assumed, it was buried in a quiet grave, and had given place 
to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk into the dotage 
of a second childhood. 

It seems hardly too much to say that our conduct in this 
regard shows a kind of literary ingratitude which ought to 
shock our moral sense. Greece has in .various ages preserved 
to us the succession of culture when the rest of the earth was 
overrun with savages. For us it has held the citadel of 
civilization against the barbarism of the world, and now 
the danger is over we have forgotten our benefactor, and 
trouble ourselves little how it fares with him. The case 
reminds us of the words of the Preacher, ^ There was a little 
city, and few men within it ; and there came a great king 
against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it. 
Now there was found in it a poor wise man, and he by 
his wisdom delivered the city ; yet no man remembered that 
same poor man.' 

The reasons for this neglect are many and various. With 
learned men of the old school it is due to a certain anti- 
quarian bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice 
against everything modern. The manner of life which 
such persons lead is not inaptly expressed in the words 
of Southey:— 

'My days among the dead are passed, 

Around me I behold. 
Where'er these casual eyes are cast, 

The mighty minds of old. 
My never-failing friends are they, 
With whom I converse night and day.' 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

To those extreme devotees of the 'good old times' to 
whom Aristotle is the last of philosophers and Augustine 
the last of theologians, and with whom the fact that 
a language is dead is of itself almost the best reason for 
studying it, the discovery that the elder and nobler of the 
two sister tongues Greek and Latin is as really alive as it was 
in the days of Homer, can hardly be expected to prove 
welcome. This is, however, less and less the spirit of the 
learned in our own day. The study of Sanscrit and Com- 
parative Grammar has opened a new field and awakened 
a new interest. Now all languages, new or old, have at 
least a certain value, even though they be as barbarous and 
destitute of Hterature as most persons suppose the language 
of modern Greece to be. 

Again, from quite a different quarter a reaction has arisen 
against the exclusiveness of the old school; a reaction 
which forms part of the great utiKtarian movement of this 
nineteenth century. The voice of the middle class, which 
has found a powerful spokesman in one of our most distin- 
guished statesmen, himself a scholar of no mean attainm.ents, 
has been heard to declare, in the words of a Wise Man of old, 
that ' A live dog is better than a dead Hon/ 

The remaining reasons for the general neglect of the 
language of modern Greece may be briefly summed up as 
follows : — the political insignificance of the nation ; the ob- 
scurity of its literature; the small practical use of the 
language; and last, but perhaps not least, the prevalence, 
in our own land especially, of the Erasmian system of pro- 
nunciation. With reference to the first point, a few words 
may not be out of place. 

The political insignificance of Greece cannot be of very 
long duration. A people which has made such rapid strides 
in education as the Greek nation, since its independence 
was estabhshed, must be worth something after all. The 

B 2 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

evils of place-hunting, national bankruptcy, squandered 
resources, and party strife, are inseparable for the present 
from a nation so suddenly called into existence, and com- 
posed of such very raw materials as was the Greek nation 
in 1828. They are evils deeply felt by the large majority 
of the people, and there are many signs that they are on 
the way to removal. As a hopeful symptom, I would refer 
to the appearance of a very ably edited illustrated periodical, 
now issued monthly in Paris, and supported by influential 
Greeks wherever the Greek language is read and under- 
stood. It is entitled '"ESviKr) 'Y.7n6€co preens,' or 'National 
Review,' and contains articles, both original and translated, * 
on every branch of Science, Literature, and Art. But the 
great importance and significance of the work appears to me 
to be the wholesome truth which it desires, as the chief 
object of its publication, to inculcate on the Greek mind. 
The 'Revue de ITnstruction Publique' for the 4th of 
November, 1869, thus comments on the periodical in 
question : — 

' Les redacteurs de Y^'E^Ovlkti 'ETnOecup-qcns se proposent de faire penetrer 
dans leur pays les notions scientifiques dont I'absence nuit, en Grece, 
au developpement de ragriculture, du commerce et de Tindustrie. . . . 
Persuades que la principale cause de Tabaissement de la Grece est dans 
le manque de routes publiques, ils feront tous leurs efforts pour 
combattre I'institution ruineuse d'une armee inutile, qui, depuis la 
restauration de la nation hellenique, a devore plus de trois cents millions 
(de drachmes), et pour tacher de faire couler dans le domaine de I'agri- 
culture et de I'industrie ces flots d'or et d'argent depenses sans raison.' 

With regard to modern Greek literature, that it is obscure 
must be admitted, but that its obscurity is well merited is 
by no means so certain. To begin with the Epic poetry 
of modern Greece, ' Belthandros and Chrysantza ' is without 
question a far more imaginative poem than the ' Niebelun- 
genhed,' and I have little doubt that any one who would 
compare the two, would feel that the former is the work 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

of a far superior genius. The popular songs of the Greek 
mountaineers are acknowledged by every one who knows 
them to be quite without parallel. 

In lyric poetry there are few writers, ancient or modern, 
with whom Christopulos w^ould compare unfavourably. The 
present polite literature of Greece has scarcely had time 
to ripen, but one poet at least, Zalacostas, has certainly the 
marks of genius ; and the prose productions of Greece are 
already of sufficient importance to attract the notice of 
our best Reviews. 

With respect to the practical usefulness of the language, 
I may remind those who are accessible to no other argu- 
ment than that of direct utility, that a competent acquaint- 
ance with modern Greek will obviate the necessity of 
engaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, Turkey, 
Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the language of the 
most thriving mercantile race, is the medium of communica- 
tion between many of the various nations of the East. 

The real importance of modern Greek is, however, 
rather a matter for the attention of the scholar, than the 
man of business or pleasure. I will briefly point out what 
I conceive to be the real advantages derivable from the 
study of modern Greek. 

I. First, I will mention what scholars like Ross and 
Passow have already noticed, that great light may be 
thrown on the meaning of classical authors from the study 
of the modern Greek language. But this is of course 
especially to be looked for in proportion as the usage of 
the writers departs from the recognized classical standard. 
Hence the knowledge of modern Greek is of chief signi- 
ficance in the verbal criticism of the New Testament and 
Septuagint. 

II. But this is not all. I believe, and I hope to be able 
to show, that the idioms of modern Greek may be employed 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

in a manner hitherto quite unlocked for, in the criticism 
of documents of doubtful age, as for example the Gospel 
of St. John, with a view to determining the period at which 
they were written. 

III. Comparative philology derives no unimportant light 
from modern Greek, because it preserves many archaic 
forms, which are postulated by philologers, but not actually 
to be found in any known ancient dialect. 

IV. The relation between accent and quantity in poetry 
can never be fully nor fairly judged by any one who is 
not familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, a 
familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart from a 
practical acquaintance with Greek as a living spoken 
language. 

V. The pronunciation of Greek and the interchange of 
certain letters within the limits of the Greek language is a 
sealed mystery to those who are ignorant of the sounds 
which the Greeks of the present day give to the letters of 
their alphabet and their several combinations. 

To prove and illustrate the propositions here advanced 
will be the main object of the following work. 

The attention of the reader will be directed first of all 
to the question of the original pronunciation of Greek, 
partly on account of its philological importance, and partly 
because the prevalence of the Erasmian system of pronun- 
ciation in the West of Europe, and in England especially, 
where it may be said to have accomplished its own reductio 
ad absurduMy has built up a wall of partition between the 
Greeks themselves and those who make the Greek lan- 
guage their study, which completely severs us from one 
another. 

How sm^all the resemblance between our pronunciation 
of <pvT€vcrapT€s and the Greek! How can we wonder that 
in our jyootyoosdntes, he should fail to recognize his phiteph-- 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

sandes ? Mutual disgust is the natural result of so great 
a disparity. When we hear Greek spoken by Greeks, we 
find it hard to believe that this jargon, as it seems to us, 
has any relation with the language we used to learn at 
school. On the other hand, the Greek who is not well 
acquainted with the origin and history of the controversy 
on Greek pronunciation, is liable to the mistake that a 
deliberate insult is intended by those who substitute for 
what are to him, at any rate, the harmonious sounds of 
his mother-tongue, a pronunciation which, however eupho- 
nious in itself, must sound to him at best like the hideous 
distortion, the ghastly caricature, of a familiar voice^ 



CHAPTER II 



On the Pronunciation of Greek. 

^Eav ovv /Jirj etScD t^v dvyafxiv rrjs (pojvrjs, eaojxai tS KaXovvTL Pdp^apos" 

Kal 6 \a\wv ky kixol /Bdppapos. — St. Paul. 
Das Altgriechische nach Art des Neugriechischen auszusprechen ist ein 

Fehler, der auf vollstandiger Unkenntniss der Sprachengeschichte 

imd der Lautlehre iiberhaupt beruht. — Schleicher, Compendium der 

Vergleichenden Grammatik. 

The avTos e(l>a of SO distinguished a philologist as Schlei- 
cher, to the effect that to pronounce ancient Greek like 
modern Greek is a mistake founded upon complete igno- 
rance of the history of languages and of the whole doctrine 
of pronunciation, will probably be enough to set this question 
at rest in the minds of most people. The writer of these 
pages ventures to dissent from this conclusion, which Pro- 
fessor Schleicher arrives at entirely on a priori grounds, 
betraying at the same time a very insufficient acquaintance 
with modern Greek pronunciation. It must however be 
acknowledged that the theory of pronunciation which Pro- 
fessor Schleicher rather leaves to be inferred, than states as 
the one to which he incHnes, has the striking merit of con- 
sistency, and is far superior to any form of the Erasmian 
system. 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 9 

Nor would we be misunderstood when we say that we 
favour the opinion of the general identity between the 
modern Greek pronunciation and that of ancient times. 
We do not mean to say, for example, that the diphthongs 
so called were never diphthongs in reality, or that ^ was 
never pronounced like ph in haphazard. But all that com- 
parative philology can prove, all that a priori reasoning re- 
quires, and, as I think we shall see, all that a posteriori 
evidence for the most part allows us to believe, is, that the 
above letters were so pronounced in some pre-historic period 
of language, when Greek was forming, when the elements of 
which it consists were in a state of fusion. This, however, 
has nothing to do with the question. How is it most reason- 
able to pronounce Greek as we find it for the first time in 
the pages of Homer ? 

From that time, and we know not for how many centuries 
earlier, the language, notwithstanding the changes which 
have passed over it, remained in all its essential features 
stereotyped and fixed, especially as regards the forms of 
words and the manner in which they are written. Now, 
how does it stand with the a priori argument ? Is it most 
likely that the forms have been preserved, but the pronun- 
ciation utterly corrupted, or that both have been handed 
down to us together.? To believe the first is to believe 
what is contrary to the whole analogy of what we know of 
other languages. Since Sanscrit was Sanscrit, who doubts 
that the pronunciation has been in the main preserved.? 
Since German was German, who questions the fact that it 
was sounded as it now is ? Or how can we believe that 
Chaucer, whose English differs from our own as regards the 
grammatical forms more than Homer from Romaic, if read 
by us in the present day, would be perfectly unintelligible 
to himself.? 

Again, the following argument must commend itself to 



lO ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

every one's understanding. If the modern Greek pronun- 
ciation be not the same with that known to the ancients, it 
must either be a legitimate development from it, unaffected 
by external influence, or it must be a corruption, the result 
of foreign admixture. If a legitimate development, then no 
one can fix a priori the limits of its first appearance ; and it 
may just as well be as old as Homer as not. If it be the 
result of contact with foreign influences, then it will be 
possible to explain the peculiarities of modern Greek pro- 
nunciation from such external causes. Here we may at 
once eliminate Turkish, because we know that at the first 
appearance of the Turkish supremacy in Greece, hundreds 
of families fled to the West of Europe, bearing with them 
that very system of pronunciation which not only the Greeks 
still use, but which learned Europe universally allowed until 
the time of Erasmus. What then is left us ? French, Teu- 
tonic, Slavonic, Roman. But none of these throw any light 
ou the peculiarities of Greek pronunciation, as the sounds 
given to y, /3, S, jli/3, ^tt, vh^ vr, oi, ci, rj, i, which receive illus- 
tration mainly, and indeed almost exclusively, from Greek 
itself. Again, the general, though by no means complete 
uniformity of modern Greek pronunciation wherever the 
language is spoken, is another very strong argument for its 
antiquity, and against its being a corruption resulting from 
contact with other languages. The fate of Latin has been 
very different. In the Spanish dialect of modern Latin we 
clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in Italian of Teutonic, 
in France of Celtic sounds. In Greek, on the other hand, 
though the countries where it is spoken are as widely distant, 
and the foreign influences to which it has been subject as 
diverse, we find, with very trifling dialectic variations, the 
same universal traditional pronunciation among learned and 
unlearned alike. In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of 
the Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in the 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. I J 

Aegean, the pronunciation presents the greatest harmony 
just in respect of those letters on which the whole contro- 
versy turns. 

We shall now proceed to notice, one by one, the peculiar 
features of Greek pronunciation, and collect the evidence on 
the subject suppHed by MSS., ancient inscriptions, the notices 
of grammarians, transcriptions into Latin and the Semitic 
languages of Greek words, &c., as it bears upon each par- 
ticular sound. At the same time we shall endeavour to 
show what we hold to be in itself the strongest proof of the 
general identity of modern and ancient Greek pronunciation, 
namely, that exactly the same letters appear to be inter- 
changeable in ancient as in modern Greek. Had the letters 
in question altogether changed their force, this extraordinary 
coincidence, which would then have to be regarded as the 
result of mere accident, would be positively inexplicable. 
In order that this part of the evidence may present a more 
complete appearance, the corresponding changes in modern 
and ancient Greek will be given, even where there is no 
controversy with respect to the sound of the letters. We 
will begin with 

Vowel Sounds. 

A. 

This letter is pronotmced by the Greeks as a in most 
languages, or as ak, or the a in father in English. It has 
never been doubted that this was the original sound of a. 
Schleicher, however, points out that besides the first intensifi- 
cation of a into o, a, and 77, and its further intensification into ©, 
an original a is often frequently represented by e or o. Thus, 

besides the dialectic forms ^epeOpov eparjv for pdpaOpov apo-r]v, 

we have Kkios for Kkdfas, from grdvas, TrXefco or TrXeco from 
pldvdmiy psfcD from srdvdmz) (pepeaai answering to hhdrase^ &c. 
So too in modern Greek we get Tiirora for rtTrore, as in 



12 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

Aeolic, Kpe^jBaTLOv for Kpa^^arwv, piTrdvi for pa<j)dvLOVy evrov for 
avTOVj dyyi^co for ^yyl-C^^, from eyyvs. 

As examples of a interchanged with o, we have in ancient 

Greek the Aeolic o-rpoTos ovco ovex^PW^ ~ o-rparos avco dvex^pV^^9 
rjfjLppoTov for rjfx^paTOV, i. e. fjfxapTov, ojjlcos and afxa^ oyKog and ayKOs^ 

oppcodeci) and dppcodeco. In modern Greek we have, in like 
manner, Kara^oSpa for Kara^dBpa, dpixaOid for oppLadid, Com- 
pare the classical ^66pos with ^dSpov, i-m^dOpa, 

Schleicher observes that the three terminations of contract 
verbs, ao), eo), and ow, were all originally but one, viz. a«. So 
in modern Greek ew is always represented by d(D, at least 
in the language of the common people. As Cl^du for fT/reT, 

TTepLTrardTe for TrepiTraTelrej (po^dcraL for (j^ajSelo-aL, i.e. (polSfj or 
(po^eT. 

A in ancient Greek is seldom weakened into v, yet this 
appears to have been the case in vv^, 6Wf, kvkKos, fxvKos, and 
a few other words, as p-vo-ra^y which also appears in the form 
fido-raf, and PvSosy which is found side by side with pd6os. 
In modern Greek we get o-Kixpos for (TKd<j)os or o-Kdcprj. So, 
again, we have the diminutive appellation d<pioVy as in x«p«- 
<pLov, frequently represented by vcpiov, as C^vcpiov. 

In ancient Greek a is often weakened into l, as io-Oi for 
ds-d/ii] TiBrjpi for dddhdmi. Compare in modern Greek ^t- 
X^^^ i/iX^^^C^h with the classical yj/aKas, -^aKd^ei. In modern, 
as in ancient Greek, we have rj for a, piKprj for puKpd, TnKprj for 
wiKpd, and a for ?;, as jSeXova for ^eXovT}. A in Homeric Greek 
becomes at, as aleros, aUl, dial, Trapai. So in modern Greek 

KaraL^alvcOy dvaifBaivcOj Tnaivco for TTidvco, KaBicTTaLvco for Ka6L(ndv(o, 

Aiara, a covenant, may be another form of Smtra, and pro- 
bably an older one. 

A is prefixed to many words more or less perhaps for the 

sake of euphony, as dlSXTjxpdsy do-TepoTrr], do-TraipcOy d(Tra(pls, in 
classical ; ^A^pvov, dlBporavov, dIBdeWa, d^pdpvkov for ^pd^vkov, 

daraxv, and many others, in modern Greek. 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 3 

E. 

Pronounced like e in de/fer, only a little broader, more 
like the German a in Manner. This sound has never been 
made the subject of dispute. As a representative of an ori- 
ginal a, of which o is another, it is interchangeable with that 
letter, as ox^^os for exBpos, in ancient ; 6xOp6s for ix'^pos, o^co 
for 6^0), in modern Greek. Conversely, eSoVes for odopres, 
*A7reXX6)i/ for 'AttoXXcovj in ancient ; and "EXvpLiros for "oXvimos, 
i^e for o^/^/, in modern Greek. It is also prefixed, as kcIvos, 

6K€lvos, fJL6, ifxe, lu ancient ; tovto, irovroy (T€, €(T€, (TV, ecrvj in 

modern Greek. 

H. 

This letter is pronounced by the Greeks like t, that is like 
ee in see, or e in 6e; ^hile the followers of Erasmus pro- 
nounced it, and still pronounce it, as the Italian e long, i.e. 
as e_y in //lej^. Hence in the early days of the controversy 
concerning the original sounds of the Greek letters, Reuchlin 
and his adherents, who favoured the modern Greek pro- 
nunciation, were called the Itacists or lotacists, while the 
Erasmians received the title of Etacists. The name is un- 
fortunate, because just the one point in which the advocates 
of the modern pronunciation would be most inclined to 
make a concession to their adversaries, is with regard to the 
sound of the letter 77. 

That 77 was originally the representative of a sound dis- 
tinct from t is etymologically certain, inasmuch as in the 
Ionic dialect, and in certain cases in Attic, rj stands for the 
doubly strengthened a, whereas t is a weakened a, in the 
few cases where it represents it. At the same time there 
are cases where 77 represents a short a, as in Teo-aapTjKovray 
BlttXtjo-los, In these instances 77 may perhaps stand for 
short L, 



14 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

E. Sophocles, in his Introduction to the ^ Glossary of Later 
and Byzantine Greek/ London, 1868, adduces the authority 
of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aelianus Herodianus, Teren- 
tianus Maurus, and Sextus, to prove that the sound of 77 
differed in their day from t, and was like the long Italian e, 
Dionysius says, in pronouncing r) the breath strikes the roots 
of the tongue, in sounding l the back of the teeth. This, 
though a very vague distinction, is not altogether inappUcable 
to the difference between the sounds of ay and ee, Hero- 
dian simply says people are mistaken in saying" vrjo-rrjs for 
vPjo-TLs, Here the difference implied may be very well one 
of quantity only. Terentianus Maurus says, distinguishing 
between e and 77, ' Temporum momenta distant, non soni 
nati vitas ;' and Sextus says much the same thing, viz. ' Kal 

(Tva-raXiv [xev to t] ylveraL c, eKTaSev de to € yiveTai -qj That is, 

Jong e = ?7 ; short ?? = e. This would seem to a casual reader 
to prove the point for which the Erasmians contend, viz. 
that 77 was sounded ay, A little consideration will serve 
greatly to modify the value to be attached to their testimony. 
In the first place, it should be remembered they are all more 
or less Romanized Greeks, in as far as they are Greeks at 
all, and they would therefore readily imagine that the r) 
must or ought to be pronounced like the letter which they 
used to represent it ; and as to them ^ = e, they naturally con- 
cluded 77 = ^. Again, etymologically they were right : 77 is 
not only the strengthening or lengthening of a, but also of e. 

As ipcoTco r}p(ji)TTj(Ta, eveyKco rjvcyKov, evpco rjvpov. 

Again, if 77 was considered by the ancients as a long e, so 
was ei, for the old name of e was el, according to the prin- 
ciple which governed the original nomenclature of the Greek 
alphabet, and which was that each letter should be named 
by its long sound. So o was called ov, yet no one supposes 
that ov was really the long sound of o, because we know that 
ov was always transcribed in Latin by u. Equally certain is 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 5 

it that ei was almost invariably represented by the simple 
vowel z in Latin. Consequently we are led to the conclu- 
sion that ov and ei would be respectively the representatives 
of the English 00 and ee, which are their exact phonetic 
parallels. For 01; actually stands for 00 in Greek, and et for 
€6 : e. g. xp^^^o^ = xp'^^^^^f (t)op€€T€ = (^opeire. In other words, 
as in English so in Greek it is plain, that certain long sounds 
corresponded actually to certain short ones, of which, ac- 
cording to a priori phonetic rules, they could not have been 
the representatives. An approximation to the English long e 
may be seen in the Dutch double e, and in the Hungarian /. 
That T) and ei were very similar in sound is rendered highly 
probable both by the fact that they were each held to be the 
representatives of a long e, and that they were interchange- 
able even within the limits of the same dialect. So we have 
not only kyivos and ttjvos for Kfivos, but also pov\€i and ^ovKrj^ 
kKtjs or Kkelsj k\€lt6s and Kkrjros. Nor does the Latin tran- 
scription of 77 by ^ prove that it was sounded ay : for the 
Latin e represented very often an ei, and on the other hand 
tended to become, and therefore probably closely resembled 
in sound, the simple I. So we have frisfes from tristeis, 
written tristis; Vergilius written Virgilius, &c. : and not only 
so, but in the Byzantine period designatus is transcribed in 
Greek Sto-tyvaro? : while, on the other hand, Plutarch writes 
Palilia^ iLaXrjXia : where plainly rj = long /. So that the tran- 
scription of t] by e in Latin inclines us to beHeve, not that rj 
was sounded ay, but that e in Latin was hard to distinguish 
from I, When shortened, rj tends to become e, not only in 
ancient but also in modern Greek, as for example, ISepos, 
Ionic for f??/3os, dvaSejia for dvddrjfxa; and in modern Greek, 

^€p6s for ^rjposy Sepiop for S-qplov, fieplov for P'Tjpiov, Keplov for 

KrjpLOV. 

Of the very close resemblance between i and tj in the time 
of Homer, that is between the sounds represented in later 



1 6 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

times by t and t) respectively, we have, Professor MuUach 
thinks, instances in the parallel forms tjkco and Iko), eVt/SoXos 
and inrj^oXos (where rj seems to be simply i lengthened by 
the combined force of the accent and the ictus), ylyas and 
yr)y^vris, which two forms we have together in the Batra- 
chomyomachia, — 

Tr]y€Pea>v dvdpcov fiinovfievoi epya yiydvTcovy — * 

TTL^a^ from Trrj^dco, rjde and Ide. In many of these cases i 
stands for long rj, in others for a shortened 77. Ross gives 
an inscription found at Carpathus in which Ipo^ccv stands for 
ypoicov. The significance of this would depend greatly on the 
antiquity of the inscription. In the Cratylus of Plato, the 
obviously false etymology of Ar]p,7}Tr]p from dldcofxi and ftiyrTyp, 
derives all its little plausibility from the resemblance between 
drj' and di-. So in Aristophanes' Pax, 925, the point of a 
pun depends upon the resemblance in sound between ^ot 
and ^oTjBelv, and again, 928, between it and vr^via. Nor 
should the later parallel forms Trplo-rrjs and Trprjo-ns, crKrjTrcov and 
cTKLTTcov, wlth thc Latlu Scipio, which Plutarch writes ^Krjmcov, 
be forgotten. 

All the Semitic transcriptions, of whatever age, agree in 
representing 77 by /, according to M. Renan, in his very 
learned and interesting pamphlet, ' Eclaircissements tir^s des 
Langues semitiques sur quelques points de la Prononciation 
grecque/ Thus in the Syrian Peschito Krjcpds = Ki/b, KvprjvTj 
= Kourini, 

In Hebrew we have Tarschisch for Taprrjao-os, hima for 

/3^/xa, diathiki for diadrjKrj, listis for Xrjarrjs. 

In Aethiopian, paracliios = TrapaKkrjTos, mestir for fjLvcrTrjpiop, 
In Arabian, Dimas for Arjfxas, 

In the eighth century after Christ, Theophilus of Edessa, 
a Syrian astronomer who enriched his literature by transla- 
tions from the Iliad and Odyssee, introduced a system of 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 7 

vocalization, which M. Renan thinks must have represented 
a pronunciation reaching back to a very early age, and in 
which the letter i appears as an H turned on its side. 

In the New Testament, KafiiXos for KdfjLrjXos, eXaKTijac for 
iXaKTLo-e, are no doubt errors in spelling, but they show the 
early prevalence of the confusion of r] with t : so too e^vTrvlo-co 

for e^virvqaco. 

It is not of much importance that rj represents in Alexan- 
drine and Hellenistic Greek the Hebrew ^., as in 'EfXfjiavovrjX, 
2aXa0Lr)X : because r] w^as the only letter left for this purpose, 
all the rest having been appropriated to the Hebrew sounds 
which they most resembled. 

There is another passage in Plato's Cratylus, 418 c, bear- 
ing on the sound of the letter 77, to the consideration of 
which we must devote a few Hues, as it has been claimed 
both by the Itacists and Etacists respectively in support of 
their views» It is this : — 

Ol TTaXaLol ol r]iJ.€TepoL roo Icora kol tm deXra ev fidXa €Xp(t^VTO, kol 
ovx r]KL(TTa al yvvaiKes, ainep fidXicTTa tyjv apxaiav (pcovrjv aoo^ovai. 
Nvv dprl fiev tov *Ia)ra rj Ei fj 'Hra peTao-rpeCJ^ovo-L. . . . Otoi^ ol 
fiev dp^atoTaTOL Ipepav ttjv rjp^epav eKaXovp, ol de ipepav, ol de vvv 

TjfX€paV, 

Here it seems we must read, instead of fj "^Hra, simply 'Hra, 
the former fj connecting 'Icora fj El 

The Erasmians are so far right in their interpretation of 
the passage, that we must agree with them in thinking that if 
Plato had not recognized a difference between t and 77, he 
would scarcely have distinguished the two as he has done ; 
but if we are really to believe that he meant rj to represent 
the sound ay in day, then the result is most alarming for the 
defenders of the Erasmian system, inasmuch as we have it 
on the authority of Plato that the pronunciation of ^ra as 
4WTa, so far from being an innovation as the Erasmians con- 

c 



1 8 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

tend, was the most ancient sound of that letter. The truth 
appears to be that Plato is thinking merely of the quantity of 
the respective sounds which he distinguishes. He speaks of 
?/ as a grander sound than i or e, fieyaXoTrpcTrea-Tepov : by which 
he can only mean that it is longer or fuller. 

In any case he must have been wrong, at least as regards 
the general principle : for neither can we believe that the 
tendency to lotacism was an archaism which has been 
revived quite lately in modern Greek, inasmuch as we can 
trace the tendency throughout the historical period of the 
Greek language, and find it more and more strongly marked , 
as the language grows older; nor, on the other hand, can we '^i 
believe that long vowels like v Were originally represented by i' 

short ones like e. ^ 

I 

Plato knew of course nothing whatever of the now ascer- 
tained principles of philology, and he was led to his conclu- 
sions probably by the knowledge of the fact that rjfxcpa was '^ 
found in ancient documents and inscriptions written, in de- ' 
fault of the letter r;, — which was not used as a vowel until t 
the Archonship of EucHdes, 403 B.C.,— ipepn or Ipepa. If 
this view be correct, we may appeal to Plato in proof ; 
that the most ancient way of representing the letter rj \ 
was by t. 

The Scholiast on Eurip. Phoen. 685 tells us expressly that 
before the time of Euclides i was used for 77, o for co^ueya. 
Theodosius the Grammarian, who lived in the fourth century 
after Christ (?), assures us that rj was formed by joining two 
t's together. This is of course impossible, inasmuch as rj 
was originally used as the sign of the aspirate, but it shows ' 
at a!ny rate that by Theodosius t) was considered as equiva- '■ 
lent to a long or double t. 

The well-known line of Cratinus still remains to be 
noticed : — 

^ *0 6' tjXlOlos o>(T7T€p TTpQ^aTOU ^Tj j3rj Xeycou ^abi^ci/ 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 1 9 

Everybody feels, it is argued, that to represent the bleating 
of a sheep by a sound equivalent to iSI, /3r, the vowel being 
sounded as ee in see, would be inadmissible. 

After all, we must confess that the attempts to render the 
noises of animals by the articulate sounds of jjiepoTTcov dvdpo)- 
TTODv, are very diverse and very unsatisfactory. We do not 
understand their language, and it is hopeless for us to at- 
tempt to reduce it to writing. The German peasant hears 
his frogs say achf, ach/, the Greek ear seemed to distinguish 
the mysterious syllables (3peKeK€K€^. In English the very word 
bkaf shows the possibility of associating an ee sound with the 
noise of the sheep. Yet we think our sheep say dah, hah, 
and I confess the Greek sheep seemed to me to say so too. 
But this may have been a Doricism. 

As however the letter t] could hardly have been in use as a 
vowel when Cratinus wTOte, it is nearly certain that he must 
have written ^ee, /Sec?, or perhaps simply /Se, /3e. This being 
so, the whole argument of the Erasmians falls to the ground 
as a ' demonstration in unreal matter.' 

I. 

Pronounced unquestionably as ee in see. The letters with 
which it is interchangeable have been, or will be, noticed 
under their respective heads. 

O and a. 

Both sounded nearly like in core, gore, shorn, or like aw 
in saw. The distinction in quantity is rather felt than heard, 
and indeed w at the beginning of a syllable sounds short, and 
o at the end of a syllable, long. Aoyos sounds Xco-yos; it pay- 
fiariKois, TTpayfiaTLKos, That this was SO in ancient Greek 
seems likely from the accent in irokcois, fiovoKcpcos, Sec. It is 
almost impossible to preserve the pure sound of when 

c 2 



20 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

much lengthened. Our o in no/e is not strictly the o in nof | 
lengthened, but the sound o rapidly followed by oOy as in doof. 
Double sounds in English as it did in Greek, simply oo, I 
Ov was one form of long o, and w/xeya was another, the latter 
used no doubt in those cases where the o sound v/as still i 
preserved. Thus it is that we have ov as a strengthened 
form for o : e. g. /xoDz/os*, ouXo/iei/o?, ixoxOrjpos, fjiovxr€p6?, modern 
Greek ; fxovpya for dfxopyrj, modern Greek, and many others. 

Oi; stands more frequently for co, as yovv, ovv for yw?/, «y : so 
in modern Greek, Ki^ovpi for ki^coplov^ Kovipbs for Kcocjyos^ \j/ovvL(a} 

for o\/^(i>z/t{'a), &C. 

T as a vowel 

The modern Greeks generally pronounce this letter 
simply as a long /. Schleicher says it was originally 
sounded like the German or ItaHan u, but soon acquired | 
the sound of the German zl, or French u. The old sound ' 
is preserved in numberless modern Greek words, which ^ 
may all be regarded as Boeotic forms, like yovvrj for yvj^rj, f 
Here follow a few examples, taken for the most part from '^ 
Sophocles' ^Modern Greek Grammar:'— 

'AyKvXos, dyKOvXa, ayKvpa, ayKovpa^ rvKavrj, hovKavr) (cf. in Homer 

boVTTOS for TVTTOs), (TTOVpCLKLOV fOT (TTVpClKlOV^ KoXXoVpa foV KoXXvpa, 

rpovTTa for TpvTTa^ (TKovXos for ctkvXos, kovXXos for kvXXos, povKovq [ 

for pvKavr),—to which we may add kovtoXlov, undoubtedly a 
Doric or Boeotic form for KVTdXiov, i. e. (TKvraXiov^ — jiovpnovpl^cc^ 

for fxvpfJLVpL^co, jJLOvpfxlyyL from l^'VpfJ-r]^. 

In Chios, Thessaly, and Macedonia, according to Pro- 
fessor Mullach, the il sound is still heard. i 

The Tsakones at present inhabiting the ancient Cynuria, ; 
whose name Professor Mullach thinks may be a corruption 
of the ancient KavKovesy have preserved to us another pecu- 
liarity of the pronunciation of v, namely, its tendency to 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 21 

be sounded like the English u, viz. j'oo. Thus in Tsakonian 
we have viovrra for vvktoj i. e. vv^. 

So in old Boeotian inscriptions we have Atoviovo-tos, Aiovo-lasj 
'OXlovvttlcovos. I suspect however, from the examples ad- 
duced, that both in the case of Tsakonian and Boeotian 
the L represents the liquid sound of X and p before v, as in 
modern Greek generally is the case whenever these letters 
stand before v, i, -q and similar sounds. 

In Syrian transcriptions v is generally represented by ou 
(English oo), as kindounos oksoufafon for Ktvdwos 6^v^a(pov, 
Similarly in the Chaldaean of Daniel, Soumphonia = 2viJL(pcovLa, 

I may here remark, by the way, that to propose a Semitic 
origin for this and other Greek words in Daniel, is what 
no one could do, el ijlj] Beo-lv dLa<pv\dTT(Dv, And not only 
so, but the words in question, both as regards their form 
and signification, are evidently 7tof earlier than the Macca- 
baean period. ririJpQ -^avreptu for -^akTr^piov is a natural 
form enough for the koivt] didXcKros which arose after the 
Macedonian conquests, but would be inexplicable before 
that time. 

Coptic and Aethiopian transcriptions agree with the 
earHer Syrian in transcribing v as ov, following, as M. Renan 
thinks, the Boeotic and Aeolic pronunciation which, it seems, 
largely prevailed among the Greek-speaking populations of 
the East. 

In later Syriac however, as in the Peschito version of 
the New Testament, we find z as the representative of v, ac- 
cording to the prevailing^ though not universal, modern Greek 
usage : as Evroclidon = EvpoKXvdcoj/, Didivios = Aidvfxos, clamis = 
X^ajivs, /iih'=vXrj, In Sountico for ^vvrv^o^ the accented 
syllable preserves the oo sound, while the unaccented has 
lost it. That the unaccented v was the first to become i 
we may infer from the common occurrence of such words as 

\kokv^ho^ and /^tdXt/Sos", (ptrvco and (pvTevco, Pap^Lkos and PpdjSvXoSj 



22 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

and such endings as -rjpos, -vp6s, -vXos, -lX6sj -tjXos, used 
indififerendy, and apparently without any distinction in 

meaning, as avo-T-qpos, Xiyvpos, dyKvXos, ttoikIXoSj i^irrjkos, 

(TTpo^iKos, alavXos, v\j/t]\6s. Neither accent nor quantity seem 
to be very fixed in such words ; yet vXos seems most often 
paroxytone; when the accent is removed the tendency to 
become rjXo^ or ikos would seem to increase. In Latin a 
short unaccented u also becomes easily i] as in ?naximus, 
optimuSy for maxumus, optumus^ another instance of the way 
in which the lotacizing tendency in Greek is paralleled in 
Latin. There are many instances, however, of an accented 
V becoming t : witness l3vlSXos and /3//3Xos', ^pl-Soy and ^apvSco, 
ppvco, (pLTpoVj (pvTpa^ pvyxos and piSj pvTTTio and pLTTTCD I probably 
also TTvB- and mS-j uvo-tl^ and TrlarLs, jivo-os (perhaps }jlv(tos) and 
fjuaosj yj/iOios and yj/vBios, ohvviq and coStV, y^nixp-vBiov and ^iiJijxi- 
Slop, e and V are also interchangeable, as in fivKaofxat and 

fi-qKaofxaLj kXvtos and kXtjtos^ also KXciroSy arvXos and CTTrjXrjj 
arrjpiy^ and crrvpa^ from ar-qpi^oy^ (pXijuos from <pXv(iL> ~ (pXvvos. 

In Arabic, Aethiopian, and Persian transcriptions v is 
nearly always represented as /; Kipros, asicriton^ sizi'ge, pilaSy 

and so on, for Kwpos-, aavyKpirov, av^vye, jrvXas. The Septua- 

gint follows here, as in other cases, the lotacist pronunciation. 
In the Aeolic dialect ov sometimes stands for v, as 
SovydT7]p ; but more often 6, as I'^Z/^o^, lirep. 

The same three gradations are found in German : as 
/unfy fiinfy in the South pronounced as finf; so miizitch, 
nilizlichy and nitzlich. Uber stands in Martin Opitz, the- 
founder of what is called the first Silesian School in German 
literature in the seventeenth century, for iibe7', which in the 
South sounds as iher. Even in the written language, Geburge 
and Gebirge, gultig and giliig^ Hulfe and Hilfe^ Spriichwort 
and Sprichwort are used indifferently according to the taste 
and fancy of the writer. 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 23 

AT and ET 

are pronounced in modern Greek as aw and ew in 
German when the v stands between two vowels or before 
a medial; in other cases as a(j) or etp respectively. The 
English letters v and/" are only approximations to the Ger- 
man w = /3, and the Greek ^. F and v in English, and in 
most European languages, are made by means of the upper 
teeth and the under lip, (f), 13, and w in German, are formed 
by the contact of both lips. Any one who compares the 
two sets of sounds by pronouncing A/3 or Au-, and Av, Ac^, 
or Av and A/, in rapid succession, will see how much nearer 
the Greek 13, or v consonantal, and <p, are to the vowel 
sound 00, or even u (French), than the EngUsh approxima- 
tions. The transition from 00 (/^Italian) to w (German) 
is marked by the English w. 

It is worthy of observation that v never stands at the 
beginning of a word of Saxon origin; while in the middle 
of a word it generally represents either d or /; but very 
seldom, if ever, the German or Saxon w. 

That av and ev were sounded as a/3 and 6/3, if followed by 
a vowel, is generally admitted, and this is according to the 
analogy of Sanscrit. 

In these cases the v represents the digamma, which in 
its turn represents the Sanscrit or old Indian v, so-called, 
but what in reality is the consonantal sound of ^ = 00, into 
which the vowel sound is changed if followed by another 
vowel, as in grdvas, pidvdmi, srdvdmi = KXefos, TrXefo), peFco, 
The modern Greek forms nXevco, pevco preserve the f, as v 
consonantal. 

But there are signs that at a very early period the 
consonantal sound of i; was heard even before a consonant. 

In Syriac, av and €v are rendered av and ev, as Evroclidon, 
Pavlos, Avgoustos; evkaristia = evxaptcrTia, ev tikis - evrvxrjs* 



^4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

It is true that av in Syriac represents also ©, as lavseph = 
'laxTTjcf), Bariavna for BapLcova : and M. Renan suggests that 
av in Syriac was pronounced au (German), which is possible ; 
but in any case there is the ev = ev remaining. Kv and o), 
as well as the Latin au and o^ are plainly nearly related, 
whatever may have been their pronunciation : as rpav^ay 
rpcofjia, Oavfxa, Bcofxa, lautus, loius, Claudius, ClodtuSj aut, Oy 
amavit, amavt^ amb. So in modern Greek fxavpos, Mcoposy avriov, 

In modern Greek ev also sometimes becomes w, as 

^cvixara, yj/i>fxaTa, with which WC may compare evXaKa, a 

Laconian form of avXa^, and the form wXaf, also Doric. 
In MSS. we have the double forms Xavpos and Xd^pos^ Xavpa 
and Xd^paj KaXavpcdylr and KaXdIBpcoy}/. In Homer a\//- is, I 
cannot doubt, for av + s = avs ; s being added, as in ovtccs, 
€vSvs, and other adverbs. Compare de\jra) and e-^co, the sig- 
mated ^evco and evco, and in modern Greek eTrLo-rexj/a, Kdyj^is, 
Sec, for €7rL(TT€V(ra, Kavais. The Homeric word '[(pOtfios is 
derived by Liddell and Scott in a procrustean manner from 
lcj)L, Olfios, notwithstanding the long i and the 6, being a mere 
ending, while the last t of Icj^l is violently, and contrary to 
all analogy, elided between cj) and 0. 

' KaL77€p ov pdbiov op tolovtol? dv^pdoTLV aTTLa-Tclv,^ I must 

submit, first, that there is no such ending as OTfios; and, 
secondly, if there is one thing certain about (pO, it is that 
no vowel has been dropt between the two letters. Let us, 
however, admit the identity of the Homeric and modern 
pronunciation, and we see at once that 'i(j)OLfxos is but another 
way of writing r]v6vpos, the Epic form of evSvpLos. Here 
every single letter is accounted for, and the accent and 
quantity as well. In IBv^ for evBvs it appears that the (p 
has been lost. Probably ^eVo), ^eiW, Olva are connected 
with (pSivco : as well as ^eo, ^oafco, S6os, Sclttov^ Sanscrit 

dhdvdmiy with ^Odvoa, (pOecopei/, (pOeaxTi, 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 25 

AI. 

This combination as pronounced by the Greeks is not to 
be distinguished from e. So we get in the grammarians 
yjreKas and yJAaUas, v/hile ye- in the compounds seems to 
represent yat-. Alnvs, high^ lofiy, seems (cf. vTraro^^ v\Jal(ttos, 
and v-^TjXos, from vnep) to be connected with irri 

Al-av becomes idv. $eyya> is from (palvo), and probably 
stands for (jyalyyco. Kal and re for K€ are, according to 
Curtius, but two forms of the same word. The interjec= 
tions € and at suggest the same. K^dvos for Katdubs, related to 

KaLPVfJLL, icopa and aloipa, iia'ivoyLai and jJLevos, fjiaifjidco for fxefxaco, 
diJLatfxdK€Tos for djLtaAceros- = dfidxriros, instead of afxefidx^ros, X^'-'^l 

from x^^j implying the verbal adjective x^'^^s or x^'^os-, are 
sufficient to show how often at stands for e. It invariably 
stands for the Sanscrit e in the verbal termination at, as 
(^epeo-ai, (pep^rni, for d/idrase, hhdrate. 

At the end of a word at is short as a rule, both in 
prosody, as also before a following vowel in scansion, which 
renders it absolutely certain, that, in such cases at least, 
it could not have been sounded as a diphthong. Schleicher 
considers the termination of the second person plural pas- 
sive -o-^e, to stand for -aBf^^ which is short for -o-Spat = 
'Sdhvai, The diphthongal sound of at, as of the other so- 
called diphthongs, was probably heard only when it was 
written with a diaeresis, as is the case at present in modern 
Greek. 

In Latin at was represented by ae^ as Aeacus, Aeneas, 
Maenades, and ae was most undoubtedly a monophthong, 
so much so that if the metre required it to be diphthongal, 
its archaic representative ai was used, as terrai frugiferai. 

In Greek inscriptions belonging to the Roman period 
we find e representing ai^ and vice ve?'sd. When Plato, 
Crat. 412 d, is quoted as proof that dUaLov was pronounced 



26 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

diKdiov, because he derives it from didlov, it may be sufficient 
to reply that Plato knew how to spell. In Callimachus, 
250 B.C., we have the following epigram: — 

Avo-avLTjy (TV de vai-)(i koXos, koXos, dWa irplv elirclv 
'Q.d€ (Tacj)cos, Tjx^ (pijcTL TLs oXXos ^X^'" 

Where e^et aXkos is supposed to be the echo of mt^i Ka\6s, 
the initial consonants disappearing, as we know they 
actually do in an echo. 

EL 

This combination written without the diaeresis is, and 
no doubt was, sounded as t. Na/x' rhymes, as we have seen, 
to €X€i. In Latin, et regularly appears as z] and in Greek 
itself we have 'Iprjv and eLprjv, tXXco and etXo), 'iXrj and clXrj, 
Semitic transcriptions all point the same way, as well as 
the pun on akX IfxaTLov and aXeiiiixaTiov in Diogenes Laertius. 
In the Scythian patois, Aristoph. Thesm., i stands for short et, 
as o for o). Herodian, M. Victorinus, Choeroboscus, and 
Theognostus identify et with t, while Sextus says it had a 
sound peculiar to itself 

OL 

Now sounded like €t, r;, t, or v, that is, equivalent to ee 
in see. Originally it was sounded apparently more like 

V than any of the other letters or combinations, inasmuch 
as the name vyj/iXov was given it to distinguish it from 

V dL(p6oyyos or v dca hc^iBoyyov by the later grammarians. 
So in Boeotic we get tvs for roh. In the same way e-^Ckov 
was so called to distinguish it from at or e bia bL(l>66yyov. 
Thus John Lydus, a Byzantine grammarian, tells us, ZT^rfJo-at 
be d^Lokoyov vopLi^co tl jxkv cn^paLveL [Kvatorcop] dta rrjs bt(j)B6yyov 
ypa(j)6fjL€Vov, TL de -^ikrjs \ KvaLcrTcop tolvvv 6 Cr]Tr)Tr]S otto rov 
quaerere olov ipewdv, "On de pij dL<j)Boyyos iu npooLfjiLOLS rj Xe^ts, 
dXXa yl/ikfj ypd<peTaL^ ovderepov fxeu rcov elprjjieviov crrjjJLaiveL tov de 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 27 

fie/Jiyj/L^OLpov KOL ^\d(T(j)rjiJLOv dia rrjs ypacj^rj^ imbei^cL, on queror 
IJL€fx(poixaL, 

Hence it is evident that the word yj/t\6v^ which means 
simple as opposed to double, is falsely explained unaspirated 
by Kriiger and Buttmann, to say nothing of the inappro- 
priateness, amounting to absurdity, of calling e unaspirated, 
as though it had formerly been one sign of the aspirate, 
which it was not, as far as I know ; or applying this designa- 
tion to V, the peculiarity of which is, that except in a few 
dialectic forms it is invariably aspirated at the beginning 
of a word. 

The Semitic transcriptions of 01 are very various : some- 
times it appears as /, as kirogrellios for x^'^P^yp'^^^^^^ • i^ 
Aethiopian sometimes as 0, as Phonix for ^olvl^, probably 
a mere mistake; and most commonly by ou, i.e. u or 00, 
proving the similarity of the sound of ol to u, which, as we 
have seen, is also represented by ou. 

The Aeolians changed ov to ot, as MoTo-a for Movaa, which 
was probably very much the same thing as if they had written 

it Mvcra, 

Ol is short (as a rule) in prosody, and often in scansion, 
and that not only at the end of a word : witness II. xiii. 275 
(quoted by Mullach), old^ dperrjv olos eo-ai : and again, Tolos 
i^v olos ovTLs. It was then plainly no diphthong. Oeconomos, 
a Greek writer of the present century, thinks it was sounded 
in some dialects as ou = ^/ Italian, and in some as v passing 
into t. This appears to us highly probable. In modern Greek 

we find TTpovKa for TrpolKa, (p^ovdiov for (pXoddioi' or (pXoLdtoVy 

drfjLOTrXovu for drfjiOTrXoLov, as well as the ordinary i sound. 
The Germans generally prefer o ( = eu French) as the re- 
presentative of OL, and compare oe which invariably tran- 
scribes it in Latin, but we do not know how the Latin oe 
was sounded, although we do know that it was, like the 
Greek ot, monosyllabic, and, like it too, easily passed both 



28 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

into u and z : compare foedus with fidus^ moenia with mimire. 
If 01 and oe were really like the German o, then we may also 
compare such forms as sohnen, siihnen, and (according 
to Southern pronunciation) sihnen. 

The account of the ambiguous oracle in Thucydides, ii. 54, 
clearly proves at least the close resemblance in sound between 
Xoi/xos- and \i\k6s. The sense which Mr. Sophocles obtains 
from the words is precisely the reverse; but he obtains it 
by sundry glaring mistranslations. He draws our attention 

to the fact that adecrOaL, o)vofxd(r6aL, clprjcrOaLj and acrovraL all bear 

reference to the sound of the word, which is partly not the 
case, and partly nothing to the point. 

He renders as follows : ' A dispute arose among men, 
some maintaining that the calamity mentioned had not been 
called {uyvofjLao-Oai) Xol[jl6s but Xifiosi' whereas Thucydides 
says simply ' that it was not plague that was spoken of, but 
famine/ ' Again, the opinion prevailed at this time that the 
word said was Xotfxos:' whereas all that the words will bear 
is, * the thing spoken of was Xoifxos.^ Again, ttju fivrjfxrjv eVot- 
ovvTo could not mean ' adapted their recollections,' but simply 
' gave the account/ By such ingenious distortions does Mr. 
Sophocles adapt a passage, which is clearly a stumbling- 
block to his theory, into a bulwark of defence. 

TI 

sounds in modern Greek as t simply. Homer nearly always 
makes vlos two short syllables. In Syriac ows occurs for 
6 vlo^, which is the more remarkable as the usual Syriac 
representative of v alone is ou. 

Passing on to the consonants, we begin with 

B ~ German w. 

Liddell and Scott admit that it was softer than our 5. 
It frequently stood for the digamma in dialectic forms, i.e^ 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 29 

in those words where the digamma was still sounded; as 
PeUaTL, ^akcKios, for e^Uocn, tjXlklos. So in modern Greek we 
have l^ayya^ a hollow, compare ayKo^ and ayyo?, &c. ; jSpifa, as 
in ancient Greek for pi^a, in the sense of jye; ^ovpKos, etymo- 
logically the same with SpKos, Ppdxos, and paxov\a. 

It stands for the consonantal sound of v in such tran- 
scriptions as Aa/5/o, ^e^rjpos, probably in the proper name 
AyajBos for dyavos ; and the word diroXavcD is only another 
way of writing aTroXdlBco. So in modern Greek we get dm^oi 
from dvdTTTO), of which it is the root, in the sense of to burn ; 
compare the ancient Greek avco, ivavco. In the middle of a 
word it thus preserves the digamma in modern Greek, and 
in such positions may be equally well written as t;; e.g. 

If (T€^as come from the Sanscrit sev, then it should properly 
be written a€va£; but it is possible that ae^opai meant ori- 
ginally ^ I move for a person/ the ancient sign of respect ; 
and in that case it stands for o-evopiai, of which o-o^eco is 
certainly the causative, written with /3 instead of v, to 
preserve the sound of the last consonant in the root. Compare 

(j)o^eci>, (pepopatj (pevyco, i.e. (pe^yco. 

As a rule, however, /3 stands for the Sanscrit g, and thus 
in Greek it is interchangeable with y, as (Becpvpa, yecpvpa; 
^K€(papov, yXecpapov, So in modern Greek we have yXicpapov, 

yXeTTO), yovTTa for ^ovira, yovyovpas for ^op^opos (?) : cf. ydpyvpa, 
yapyaXeeov. 

Before £, pronounced as y, it becomes, like y and §, ( : 
as vlC(*> for viIBloj- ; Xd(op,ai for Xd^LOfxaL. I can find no instance 
of such a change in modern Greek, but even in ancient 
Greek it is very rare, and probably arose from the fact that 
a y was heard in such cases after the /3. Thus rplCco and 
rpi^o) are probably from the same root, rplCo) expressing the 
grating squeaking noise caused by rpl^co. The intermediate 
form would be rpl^yco, which occurs in modern Greek, as 



30 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

well as both rplCco and rpi/Sco. So vl^co and vl^yco, for i/ifw, 

are modern Greek forms. Cf. (pe^ofiac and cj^e^yco, i.e. (pevyoa. 

The hard unaspirated sound of 5 is preserved when /3 

follows jLt, as efxlBaivco, €jit/3dXtjLtos'. 

B is interchangeable with fx, as fiefxlBpas for ^efxlSpa? (ancient 
Greek) ; /xv^aw, 3i^C«« ; x^/^^» ax^/3a8a (modern Greek) ; with 
(/), as BiXtTrTro?, Macedonian for ^lXittttos (ancient Greek) ; 

cf. modern Greek ^i\apds,Bi\apds; aXee/So), dXetc/)© ; fi^Tja-Kovvi, 
CJ)\t](TKovvl (modern Greek) ; with tt, as ^areh, iraTelv, nvTivrj, 

BvTLVT] (ancient Greek) ; 'Apama for 'ApaSla (modern Greek). 

B, A are interchanged, as jSeXc^iV, pXrjp for SeX^iV, deXedp 
(ancient Greek) ; Kowd^c for Kowddiy from Kivados (modern 
Greek). 

r. 

This letter is a guttural semivowel, like the German g 
in Tag: before t and e, however, it sounds like a very strong 
jy ; in other words, it sounds more palatal. The sound of the 
Hebrew y, as preserved according to the most probable 
tradition, and most faithfully rendered by the Arabian g 
soft, as Professor Gandel informs me, corresponds exactly 
to the Greek y. Thus we find in the Septuagint Td^a, 
Topoppa, for njy^ i^^'OV: which proves almost to demonstration 
that the present pronunciation of y must have prevailed in 
the time of the translators of the Septuagint. Only if we 
assume that y was a soft semivowel, can we understand its 
evanescence, not only as a transcription of y before an un- 
accented vowel, as 'AjLtaXe/c, 'hXi, but also in Greek words, 
especially before palatal vowels, as ala for yala, Iwos for yiwo^ ; 
and in the middle of a word between two vowels, as I6iv^ Xlos 
for iyoovy oXlyos', OT before fjL, as rprjpa for Tprjypay as Well 
as before o- in aorists of verbs, -afcD for -aytw, aorist -aaa for 
-a^a. So in modern Greek we get the dialectic forms X/oy 
for oXlyoSy la>p for €yd)Vj Xeco for Xeyo), TTpafia for Trpdyp-a^ &C, 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 3 1 

With ala for yma we may compare lalvco for vytaLV(o. In 
ancient Greek vyialvw, vyid^co, lao^at are no doubt all con- 
nected; and in modern Greek it is hard to say in such 
forms as yiarpos, yalfxa for larpos, alfxa, whether the y is to 
be considered as prefixed to the one form or omitted from 
the other. In yovXta for ovXia it may stand for t, cf. ovXos 
and 'lovXos, as in dypeco, alpeco. In modern Greek, as in 
ancient, y is often prefixed to X, as yXvKocfieyyeL for Xuko- 

(j)eyy€i, cf. XvKotpcos, Xaico), yXaKcj, XapoSy yXdpog '^ as well aS 
before v, as yveOco for vr}6co, yX€L(p(o for X6t;^a). 

Here we may compare yXava-acOj yXr^ixr], yvocjyos, for Xevcra-co, 

XrjiJLTj, v6(f>os, i.e. v€(pos: Xevao-co is probably but a sigmated 
form of (3X€(j)co or (BXeTrco, standing for yXccjxrco : compare yXe- 
(f>apovy and in modern Greek yXeVw, also the modern Greek 

(TVVV€(j)OV, (TVyV€(pOV, 

The letter y in modern Greek is often of etymological 
significance, in cases where it has disappeared from the 
classical form. Avyov or 'A/SyoV, for woV, preserves the ori- 
ginal az^'dn far more truly than even the form given by 
Hesychius, viz. a>^€ov, or the Latin ovum ; as does p-vya for 
\xvia^ than the Attic \xva. Where two y's come together the 
first is nasal. That this was so in ancient Greek, we know 
from the fact that dvy-, ivy-, &c. were always written dyy-, iyy-. 
In this position the second 7 retains its hard sound, as is the 
case with /S after /x. 

The nasal y is sometimes prefixed to a guttural in order 
to strengthen a syllable, as in Sanscrit so in ancient and 
modern Greek. Examples : Ak\ aitk'ami, Siyydvco from root 
Biy-j dyKaOi from aKavBa (modern Greek), and bayKavco for 

A 

= Spanish d, or th in then, except after v, where it sounds 
harder. Thus a lisped C = ^, becomes S. Accordingly we 

have Aeus' and Zevs, dpl^rjXos for dpidrjXos, (op^ for dopKas. In 



32 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 

modern Greek, (opKabiov for bopKahiov^ V«r* for o/^aSer. Most 
often this is the case when a palatal vowel has been ab- 
sorbed, as TTe^os for irehios, and in modern Greek Mirov^owas 
for llobecov. Only on the assumption that b = thin then, can 
we understand how o-b came to represent C in Doric, as 
jjieXlcrdco, rcoSdcrdco, Oavfido-^co, Or how f was accounted by the 
grammarians a double letter, compounded of S and o-, 
whereas etymologically it is extremely doubtful whether fever 
stands for §$•, and certain that it never stands for o-S, the fact 
being that o-d and ds are ways of approximating the sound of C 
The sound of d being so soft, it easily passes into y before 
the half consonantal t, so we have yta for Sta, &c. Thus we 
have reason to suspect that y€(j)vpa was originally 3Lai<j>vpa, 
perhaps Aeohc for diaiOvpa, although the accent and the 
earlier quantity are against this derivation. More certain 

is it that tco/co) stands for ytw/c©, from dioyKco ; taiVo) for yLalvay^ 

from dialvo); the modern Greek yepos or ytepos for diepos, 
another form of vyi-qpo^. So we have too in modern Greek 
laKLov, dtaKiov, yiciKtov, for a rudder. If Upos means originally 
strongs as some philologers think, hi^pos^ vyicpos, yepos, and 
Upos are all different forms of the same word; vypos is 
probably the result of metathesis. So we see little reason 
to doubt the identity of va\os, glass, and yvaXov, yvakai from 
yvaXos, hollow. The earliest meaning of vakov was a hollow 
transparent stone in which mummies were enclosed among 
the Egyptians (Herod. 3. 24). So aWepia yvaka, used of the 
heavens; not the ^ vault of heaven,' as Liddell and Scott 
render it, so much as the hollows of heaven, i. e. the spheres 
in which the stars were supposed to be embedded, like so 
many flies in amber. The modern Greek for vaXov is 
yvaXov, 

Z=:z in English. 
Schleicher himself completely discards the notion of pro- 
nouncing C as ds or sd, Etymologically, it stands for yt, di, 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 33 

or (3l followed by another vowel, as vLJSyco, vllBuoy vlCco ; Tpl^co, 

rpi^ycOf TpL[3ioy, rpl^co j Zevs for Atevs, dppo^co for dpp,6yL(j). So in 

modern Greek we get dtaraCco from ^iarayto), yaXd^tos for 
yakdyLos Or yXayioy, Taov^co from rcrovyio), from the Latin sugo ; 
Zd^aXrjs for Ata^oXo?, faXoz/ = 'tx^os, from yvakov, shortened to 
yLokov, i. e. the hollow print of the foot ; Cc^plcj^rjs, better written 
^applcfyrj^, an extravagant dresser, from ^LappLirTco. The change 
of cr into f, mentioned by Liddell and Scott, is almost always 

before the letter /x, as Zpvpva, ^piKpos, Cf^epddXeos, (prjypa, ^pivvT). 

In modern Greek, a- before /x always sounds as f. This fact 
is of itself enough to prove the identity of the sound of C in 
ancient and modern times. 

= /^ in thin^ somewhat more forcibly pronounced 
than in English. 

e originally stood for the Sanscrit dh, and it appears to be 
Schleicher's opinion that it was anciently sounded as th in 
hothouse. But this must have been in the pre-historic 
period of the language. Perhaps such forms as dTSiKYj for 
aTTLKT} may be relics of such a sound. In modern Greek we 
have VotBol for the Goths. But that 6 was very Hke the 
English th may be inferred from the fact that the Laconian 
dialect changes 6 into a-, as o-dXao-o-a, a-elo^, 'Ao-am. In modern 
Greek we get aKavTo-oxoipos for dfcavOoxoipos. In Aeolic 6 be- 
comes (j), as (j^tJp, (pXi^o), (pXdco. So in modern Greek we have 

(pXij^co, (jykLpepop for BXl^cOj BXt^epov, (prjKdpiov for SrjKapiov. In 

Doric X sometimes stands for 0, as opvixos for opviBos, so in 
modern Greek opvLxa for opviBa, and, vice versa, aBprj for axvr]. 

K. 

Like the English k before the guttural vowels; before the 
palatals more nearly approaching the Italian c in a'vi'ta, and 
with a very close resemblance to a palatal /. The best idea 

D 



34 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

I can give of this sound on paper is perhaps /k, as mws, | 
Kevrpov, KiTpivov, /cat, pronounced approximately ikeenos, tken- , 
dron, /keefreenon, tkeh ; not that a / sound is actually heard, 
but that after forming a palatal / (and our English / is mostly 
palatal) the tongue is in the right position for forming k. In 
Crete, k palatal sounds just like the Italian c before e or ?*, 
or our ch in chin. In the same way the Sanscrit ch was 
formed from k, through the influence of contiguous palatal 
sounds. It is therefore probable that the Italian c palatal is 
also legitimately developed from the old Roman sound given 
to c before e and i, as in cecidi ; while the French c dental 
and ch palatal, the Spanish z and c palatal = th^ the German z 
and c palatal = ts^ are more or less unsuccessful attempts to 
approximate the true pronunciation. The palatal sound of /c 
evidently represents the intermediate stage through which 
the guttural k must pass, and must always have passed, in 
order to become the palatal ch. In pronouncing k palatal 
the tip of the tongue may be seen in a Greek's mouth 
coming right up to the epm^ o5oVra)i/ ; not that the tip of the 
tongue is actually used in pronouncing the /c, but the upper 
part of the tongue is brought so far forward that the ex- 
tremity necessarily reaches the teeth, and indeed protrudes a 
little beyond them. K palatal being thus so nearly allied to 
r, we shall not be surprised to find them interchanged. 

So we have in ancient Greek tIs for aci?, re for /cat, rvpawos 
for KOLpavos (for V and ot see above, as well as for at and e), 

Kljicdv for Tifjicov, Trjvos for Kelvos, nore for TTOKe from ttokg, So 

in modern Greek, especially in the Tsakonian dialect, /ct/ito 

for ri/JLco, or/ctX/3oa) for crTtXp6(0j (f>Kvdpiov for (pTvdpiov, (pKeidva) for 
^retat'o), i. e. evSeid^co or evOeLauco, Conversely, repLOS or ralpLOS, 

meaning suitable, or similar, is possibly for Kalpios, Tti/cfoj 
and rtmo-o-o), the latter form common to modern and ancient 
Greek, are clearly connected with /cti/eo). 

n and K are also found interchanged in Greek. The 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 35 

original form of tnTros was lkkos. So in modern Greek we 
have KOTveka and KOKojvrj, a girl ; Ko^Ka, an indentation con- 
nected with KOTT-Tco, KOTTTjvaL. I much doubt whether d-KcoKr] 
be not also connected with the root acott-, instead of being 
a lengthened form for clkt} : and whether dioKcox-q, &c., ought 
not also to be written diaKcoKr], standing for dLaKonrj, 



A. ^^ 

Interchangeable with p, as in Doric ^v6a for ^\6a. So, in 
modern Greek, dvvct)avTos becomes d\vcl)avT6s, while civOe in 
Tsakonian stands for aXcj^i. 

A is also interchangeable with p : afxeXyco and afxepyay are 
originally the same word. 'Afxepyco is the older form, and is 
preserved in modern Greek for djieXyco. Here we must say 
a word on wktos dfiokyco. Buttmann is quite right in re- 
jecting the translation ^ milking time,' but plainly wrong in 
rejecting the derivation from dfxeXyco or ajxepyco. The form 
of the word is such that no other derivation is possible. 
Eustathius may also be right in saying that dfioXybs is an 
old Achaean word for d/c/x^. A similar sense for dKfxrj is 
suggested by the word iKfidco, io hridse out^ and tK/xas-. But 
the sense and derivation are quite plain and natural. 
NvKTos d\xoky(h means in the dj^egs of night, — a most 
fitting and poetical expression for the dead of night. 
'k\L6pyr] or dpovpya, from dfxepyco, means, in both modern 
and ancient Greek, neither more nor less than dregs or 
ieeSy the squeezings out ; that is, what is left after the 
squeezing out of wine or oil. This is plainly the sense in 
which it is used to express clotted blood in Eur. Phaeth. 

2. 2. 6, ovK djJLokyov €^0fx6p^€T€^ e'lTTOV TLS icFTiV aiyiaTOS ')(apiaL TvecrSvy 

where the cognate i^opLopywiii, only another form of i^afiepyay, 
seems plainly used with a poetic sense of its identity in root. 
No more exact comparison could be used than the lees of 

D 2 



36 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

wine for clotted blood. Compare Isaiah's well-known apo- 
strophe, Ixiii. 1-3, beginning, ' Who is this that cometh from 
Edom?' The modern Greek form for ddeXcj^bs is dSepc^oy, 
more archaic than the classical, inasmuch as it is derived 
from the Sanscrit sagarhhjas. In modern Greek the common 
form for r]K6ov is ripBav ; and epxofJLai appears also as epSofxat, 
leading to the conclusion that eXdcd and epxofiai are not 1 
distinct but identical roots. For x and 6, see above. 

So, too, aXcfytTov, avSos, and apros are probably all identical, 
and are verbal participles formed from aXeo or dXedco, standing 
respectively for dX-O-Tov and oXtos with paragogic l inserted 
in the first case, as in doXixos in ancient, Kamvos in modern 
Greek. The B in dXeBco seems to stand for <^, which repre- 
sents the digamma: cf. aXevpa or aXefpa. I cannot doubt 
that dXdeco and dvOsco, dXbalvco and aphoD, are all cognate words. 

M. 

With regard to the pronunciation of this letter there is no 
dispute : and the same may be said of 

N. 

When, however, the letters M and N are combined with 
77 and r respectively, /xtt, vt, these consonants become medials, 
instead of tenues, epLiropog = emboros, evrepa = endera. In the 
same way the guttural nasal 7, when placed before ac, converts 
the fc into its corresponding medial, oy/<o? = oyyo^. Moreover, 
/3, §, and y after /Lt, v, and y nasal, become simple medials 
instead of semi-vowels. With /3 and h however this is not 
recognized by the educated, although it is universally pre- 
valent in the mouths of the common people. This phonetic 
law may be most shortly expressed as follows : — /x, v^ and y 
nasal take after them the corresponding unaspirated medial. 

Exception : If y be followed by x, the latter preserves its 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 37 

sound, and the same may be said of (^, after fi and v : so 
that we may say, ft, v, and 7 are followed by their corre- 
sponding unaspirated medial, or aspirated tenuis. 

In modern Greek therefore, as far as the sound is con- 
cerned, we may write indifferently, at least according to the 
popular pronunciation, eft/3atVa) or ifxiraivai = emheno^ avrpa or 

avbpa = andra, avrpov or avhpov = andron, ayKos or ayyos = dngos, 

ivbvvco or ivTvvco = endyno. No one can doubt that this was 
the case in ancient Greek from time immemorial, who will 
consider such forms as Trareo) and ifilSaTeo), 'AfxppaKia and 

'AfiTrpaKLa^ evTvvco and ivdvcOy ivreKex^ia and ivbekex^ia, ayKos 
and ayyos, Bplyyos and OptyKOSj €vbov and ivTos, ivhoddia and 
ipTocrdia, pwraKi^s and pvvhaKr). 

Between p. and p, and v and p, pX and v\, /3 (or tt), 5, or r 
respectively are inserted^ 

So we have in ancient Greek, p^eo-TjpjSplay dv^pos, dp^XaKLo-Kco 
or dp7rXaKL(TK(t)j TJplBXaKov or rjpTrXaKov. In modern Greek, x^A'" 

ttKos for xaprjkos^ Kopop^nXo for KopoprjXo, p^Trpe, p^pe, OX ^pe for 
/xcope. 

P = r. 

2 = X. 

2 is often prefixed, as (rpiKpos, ancient Greek; crplyco, modern 
Greek. 

Double (7 in the later Attic dialect became tt, as in 
Koo-o-vcjyos, k6ttv(J)os; the intermediate stage must have been 
KOTo-vcjios, which is preserved in modern Greek. 

So- in terminations like -dao-co in cf)v\d(T(Tco, Kopvo-aco, Sec, 
stood originally for kJ, or 6j\ but afterwards apparently also 
for yj instead of f, as in rda-crco and Trpda-o-co. Schleicher 
imagines that in these cases ray- and npay- are softened from 
TaK. and TTpaK, So we get in modern Greek cpvXdyco, ^v\d((o, 

but (pvXaKTj. 



38 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 



Before this letter n and k are sounded by the common 
people as ^ and x I while, on the other hand, after ^ and x, 
d has more the sound of r. This explains in ancient Greek 
the forms oxSn and dKrrj, otttos and icpSos, avOts = a^Bis and 
avTLs = a(pTLs, ivrevOcv and ivOevrev = ivreipBev and €if6€cj)T€v, re- 
spectively. 

Has no exact representative in any European language 
that I know ; but is like a labial /^ and answers to /3 and the 
German w, as their corresponding sharp sound. 



X. 

X is like the German ck in Back, but with this difference, 
that the German ck becomes palatal by the influence of the 
preceding vowel, while x is affected only by the vowel that 
follows it. The same thing applies to g and 7. Thus the 
Greek says '^-x^) "-X^? ra-x^Sj the German ex-co, ax-rj, raxvs. 

Where the Greek says e-ycb the German says ey-o), dividing 
the syllables differently. Thus to the Greek ear the German 
pronunciation of these Greek words sounds like exto), a;^-?/, 
rax'vs, iyTw, In the same way the German words lack-en, 
mack-en, would naturally be read by Greeks Xd-x^v, f^d-x^v, 
while irag-en would become rpa-yez/. 

The prehistoric pronunciation of and x as pk, and kk in 
haphazard and inkkorn, has left but the obsolescent relics, 
laKxr], 2aTrcl)co^ oTr^iV, ^poKxos, and these for the most part only 
when required by the exigencies of metre. In modern 
Greek Kkurdistan is written Y^x^vhidTdv, 

X and K are often interchanged, as Se^ojuat deKOfxat, cr^fXl? 



ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 39 

(tk€\l9 ; SO in modern Greek especially after o-, as o-kl^co, 

(TKoXacrfia, (TKoXeLo for o'x^C'^) crxoXao-fia, (T)(o\€loi> * but also 
KapK€(7L for Kapxrjcnov, 

as the representative of tto-, cj) (v consonantal) a, jSa, requires 
no further comment. 



The Aspirate. 

This is no longer heard in modern Greek, and we do not 
know that it was ever sounded as /i, though it is not easy to 
conceive of its having been sounded otherwise. The fact 
is, the so-called rough breathing stood properly for some 
letter which had been left out at the beginning of a word, 
more especially for 0-. Often too it was written where it had 
no etymological meaning, and often omitted where we 
should expect to find it. If it had any sound it was most 
likely that of k, and like that letter in Latin, extremely evan- 
escent. The Latin /^ is a mere sign in all the modern Latin 
dialects, except in French, where a distinction is made be- 
tween an aspirated and an unaspirated k. But even in French 
neither the one nor the other is sounded (at any rate so far 
as the English ear can detect) ; and the only difference 
between the h in /ladzf and the k in /larpe is, that it is the 
custom to cut off the vowel of the article before the one and 
not before the other. So, too, in ancient Greek the only 
difference between the rough and the smooth breathing may 
have been that it was the custom to turn k, n, r into x, </>» ^ 
before words which had the rough breathing, whereas before 
the smooth breathing they remained unaltered; while even 
this characteristic was effaced in the Ionic dialect. 

In modern Greek, though the rough breathing is not 
heard, it affects the pronunciation of a preceding tenuis ; and 



40 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 

several compounds, as icfy^ros for eneros, fxeSavpiov for fi€TavpL0Vj 

show that the people have exercised their instinct in this 
matter quite independently of, because occasionally at va- 
riance with, grammatical traditions. They say too, dcj) ov, 

d<j)*6T0V, but KOTi, dnoXovs, 

The law of compensation with regard to aspirated con- 
sonants, as seen in such forms as x^'^P«> Kvdpa, x^'^^^y klOcov, 
&c., also holds good in modern Greek; e.g. Kox^^dpiov, 
losing its x? becomes x^^^^^P^-^^- 

The result of our comparison of modern Greek pronun- 
ciation with what appears to have been the pronunciation of 
classical times, is that even in the minutest particulars, so far 
as we can trace them, the same phonetic laws were at work 
in the time of Homer and of Thucydides as are at work 
now, and that they produced the same results. Can any one 
believe that anything short of a miracle could have pro- 
duced so exact a coincidence, except upon the assumption 
that the pronunciation now prevailing is in the main at least 
identical with that of ancient times ? 

The consideration of the question is, however, incomplete 
until we have discussed, as we propose doing in the next 
chapter, the kindred subject of Accent and Quantity. 



CHAPTER III 



Accent and Quantity. 

Quantity, ixlyeOos, was the foundation of ancient Greek 
verse, though, as we shall see, by no means its Only regulating 
principle. In modern Greek, quantitative verse no longer 
exists, and therefore the quantity of syllables has lost the chief 
significance which it once possessed. That quantity was 
ever recognized in pronunciation apart from metrical con- 
siderations there is but small evidence to show ; whereas we 
know that accents were introduced by Aristophanes of By- 
zantium about two hundred years before Christ, in order to 
preserve the true pronunciation of Greek at the time when it 
was becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races. The 
apparent influence which quantity had on accent is to a 
great extent, if not altogether, imaginary — the result of an 
artificial theory. The reason that avOpanrov is not written 
avSpcoTTov, is by no means that ov is a long syllable, but simply 
because avOpayirov Stands for avBpdoTroa-'Lo, dvdpa>7roiOj and the 
accent did not admit of being put further back than the last 
syllable but one. In ttoXccos, cos is no contraction, but 
simply stands for os ; consequently the accent is not drawn 
forward. 

With regard to modern Greek, it is neither correct to say, 



4^ ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

with Sophocles, that all vowel sounds are isochronous, nor 
with Mr. W. G. Clark (^Journal of Philology/ p. 105), 'that 
the stress in modern Greek is exactly like our own, and is 
given by prolonging the sound as well as raising the voice. 
Thus \6yos^ ovosy ap0p(O7TO9 are pronounced Xcoyoy, Svos, aV- 
dpoTTos/ The examples which Mr. Clark adduces are correct 
as regards the fact, while they sufficiently refute the assertion 
of Sophocles that all vowel sounds in Greek are isochronous. 
But Mr. Clark has been misled with respect to the true 
explanation of the lengthening of the syllables in question, 
and that not only as regards Greek, but equally as regards 
English. 

Neither in Greek, nor in English, has the accent or stress 
any power to lengthen a vowel sound, although the absence 
of accent may in certain cases, and especially in EngHsh, 
tend to obliterate the sound of a" vowel. In English as in 
Greek, and in almost all languages, when a syllable ends in 
a consonant, the preceding vowel is short; when in a 
vov/el, that vowel is mostly long ; a very simple and intel- 
ligible law of compensation, which in Hebrew is an estab- 
Hshed rule. 

It is surely a strange thing that most scholars should have 
concurred in regarding the combination or simultaneous 
recognition in pronunciation of accent and quantity, as an 
insoluble problem ; for we ourselves solve the problem 
practically in every sentence we utter. The accent con- 
tinually falls on a short syllable, as getting, picking, impossible^ 
critical; while a long syllable, whether long by virtue of the 
number of consonants heard, or by the long or diphthongal 
sound of the vowel, is perpetually found without the accent : 
abnormal^/lnancial, fertile, perfume, perfect, a priori, which is 
nearly always so pronounced, in spite of the fact that the 
first i is short in Latin. So that we may say of this, as of 
many an other imaginary difficulty, solvitur amhulando. 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 43 

Nobody will any longer believe in the reality of the 
supposed conflict between accent and quantity, who con- 
siders for one moment its origin, which is nothing but our 
application to Greek of the principles of Latin accentuation. 
In Latin it is a rule that the accent always falls upon the 
penultimate when long, and in words of more than two 
syllables, never w^hen short. So that one may say that, 
wherever it is possible, the long syllables receive an accent^ 
and the short ones are unaccented. Every language has 
its own law of accentuation, and this was the Latin law, 
as far as we know it from Quinctilian, and a very simple 
and natural law it was; but perhaps there is scarcely any 
other language on the face of the globe whose system of 
stress is so uniform and monotonous. Now, just because 
the Latin accent, however fallaciously applied to Greek, does 
in a remarkable manner tend to preserve to a great extent 
(though by no means completely) the quantity of syllables, 
the notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise pre- 
served. That this notion is completely false is practically 
shown, first in our own language, secondly in Latin, in 
which we have to recognise, and do recognise, the length 
of the many long syllables which it is impossible even 
according to the Latin system to accent, and lastly in 
Greek as spoken in the present day, in which not only, 
as in every other language, are syllables containing several 
contiguous consonants long by the very nature of the 
case, but of the vowels some are always long, as v, i, ot, et, 
and others common, as e, at, w, ou, the latter being long 
or short according as they stand at the end of a syllable 
or are followed by a consonant. Besides this, it is to be 
observed that all the common vowels sound short before p. 
The accent, so far from altering the quantity, only tends 
to make it more distinctly heard. For instance, ovp has 
the ov always short, but this is far more distinctly heard 



44 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 

in <l)ayovpa than in ovpd] so, too, atp is always short, but 
this is far more plainly heard in i^alpeais = e^epeats, than 
in alpeTLKos. liy, OS, when belonging to one syllable, are 
always short, but this strikes us more forcibly in the pro- 
nunciation of TrpaynaTLKcos, than in that of 6cnrr]TL0v, 

Erasmus himself never recommended the disuse of the 
Greek accent in pronunciation, and very well draws out the 
distinction between accent and quantity as follows. He puts 
his lesson into the mouth of a bear, who is made to say : — 
' There are some men so dense as to confound stress with 
length of sound, while the two things are as different as 
possible. A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is another, 
Intensiveness is not the same thing as extensiveness. And 
yet 1 have known learned men, who, in sounding the words 
avexov kol dnexovy lengthened the middle syllable with all 
their might and main, just because it has the acute accent, 
though it is short by nature, in fact as short as a syllable 
could be. Why, the very donkeys might teach us the 
difference between accent and quantity, for they, when they 
bray, make the sharp sound short, and the deep one long.' 
Yet Erasmus is wrong in maintaining that the syllable 
formed by the v€ in dvexov is as short as a syllable can be, 
if by that he means that the € has the shortest possible 
sound, inasmuch as standing, as it does, at the end of 
a syllable, it is inevitably lengthened more or less. The 
followers of Erasmus in Germany, however vicious their 
pronunciation in other respects, invariably read Greek so 
that the accent shall be heard, and never dream that they 
are sacrificing quantity. 

Our prejudice, then, against accents is for the most part 
insular, and deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities 
of our pronunciation. This is especially the case with 
respect to long and short v, which we ordinarily pronounce 
in exactly the same manner, namely as you. The result 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 45 

of this is, that when we want to show the difference between 
long and short v^ we have no other means open to us than 
that of laying a stress on the long v and leaving the short 
unaccented. In tjvtvx^I' and virevSwos we pronounce the 
V as yot^, i. e. really long, and we only distinguish between 
the long V in the one case and the short v in the other 
by flying in the face of the Greek accent, and reading 
the words respectively rjvTvx^t and vTrevdvvos. In this case, 
so far from preserving the true quantity by the use of the 
Latin accent, we are only covering a false one. 

The foregoing considerations must have made it plain 
to every one who has followed them, that the Latin accent 
is neither an indispensable nor an infallible means of 
marking the right quantity of Greek syllables. Such dif- 
ference of quantity as is still recognised in modern Greek and 
other modern languages, so far from being obscured or 
altered, is only more strongly brought out by the accent. 
And although, as a matter of fact, the quantities of Greek 
vowel sounds at the present day no longer exactly cor- 
respond to the ancient quantities, yet it would be very easy 
to preserve and recognise the ancient quantities if there 
were any object in so doing. It is inconceivable that the 
difl"erence between a long and a short a or t in ancient 
Greek was ever anything but a very subtle and evanescent 
one, to a great extent artificial and based upon the usage 
of scansion; and one, as w^e know, singularly inconstant 
and varying. 

The lengthening of o, however, seems plainly to have 
occurred subject to the very same conditions as in the 
present day. '"oXos- and ovXo^, /3oXo/xat and ISovXojiaL, fiovos and 
fjLovvo9, ov\oiJL€vr]v^ Alokov, vocros and vovaos, all present us with 
cases of o lengthened by position, that is, because it stands 
before but one consonant. Why do we never find novaos and 
rovaos, but always Troao-os and ToVcros, when the metre requires 



46 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 

it? Simply because at that early period of the Greek 
language the o- was felt to be, as it etymologically is, really 
double; ttqctos and t6(to9 standing respectively for ttoVo-o? 
and TOG-GTos^ i. e. (originally) ttoo-los and t6o-los ; of which the 
& being consonantal, the a- belongs to the preceding syllable, 
making it impossible to lengthen the vowel. Thus we see 
that the greater the consonantal fxeyeOos of a syllable, the 
less the ^eyedos of the vowel, and vice versa. It is therefore 
incorrect to speak of the a in ^\a^ being long by position; 
it is short by position, and that just because the syllable is 
consonantally long. In AioXoi;, on the other hand, the o is 
long by position, or at least has a tendency to become so, 
though short by nature. 

Having established, then, the variable and uncertain nature 
of quantity among the ancient Greeks, and, except so 
far as it was of etymological significance or depended on 
syllabification, its arbitrary and artificial character, we will 
proceed to enquire what was meant respectively by accent, 
Trpoo-co^ia, emphasis, or stress in Greek, and how it was related 
to quantity and quantitative rhythm. 

Mr. W. G. Clark, in his Essay on ^ English Pronunciation 
of Greek,' quotes in answer to the question how emphasis 
is given, the words of Priscian : ^ Vox tripartite dividitur, 
scilicet altitudine,latitudine, longitudine,' and remarks thereon: 
' Thus a syllable may be emphasized in three w^ays — 

1 . by raising the note ; 

2. by increasing the amount of sound ; 

3. by prolonging the sound.' 

^Emphasis,' he observes, 'may be given by employing 
each of these methods, or any two of them, or all three 
together.' 

On this we have only to remark, that i and 2 usually 
go together. By raising the note we necessarily, if we 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 47 

employ the same quantity of breath, also increase the sound, 
inasmuch as we economize breath. So the shriller whistle 
of a steam-engine, ceteris paribus, is always the louder. 

Emphasis by prolongation, though possible, is certainly 
very rare, if it ever occurs. 

' What we blend,' Mr. Clark proceeds, ' both Greeks and 
Latins kept distinct,' meaning i and 3. This is not quite 
accurate. We, that is Englishmen, and certainly the speakers 
of most modern languages, do not, as we have seen, blend 
together i and 3, whereas the Latins did so far blend them, 
that while they never lengthened a syllable because it was 
accented, they did as far as possible accent it where it was 
long. 

' In modern Greek the ancient tradition is so far preserved 
that the stress, as a rule, falls upon the syllable which in 
ancient Greek received^e accent and in pronouncing which 
the voice was raised/ 'But,' continues Mr. Clark in the words 
already quoted and called in question, * the stress in modern 
Greek is exactly like our own,' which is so far correct.. 
* and is given by prolonging the sound as well as by raising 
the note.' Even w^ere it true that the accent sometimes con- 
tributes to lengthen the sound of a vowel, it would be ob- 
viously only an accident of the emphasis and not part of 
it. The many cases (and they are the majority) in which 
a syllable is accented without any lengthening of the vowel, 
were sufficient to show that emphasis is given in modern 
as in ancient Greek simply by raising the musical or quasi- 
musical note, and not by prolonging the sound. But Pro- 
fessor Max Mliller, in one of his (I believe unpublished) 
lectures, has discovered an entirely new difference between 
ancient and modern accentuation, which, though nearer the 
truth on the whole than Mr. Clark's, is also very much 
at variance with what I am compelled to regard as the fact. 
He says that the ancient accent indicated a musical elevation 



48 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

of the tone, while the modern accent indicates simply stress. 
But what is 'stress?' Is it not an elevation of the tone? 
Mr. Clark and every one else has allowed that, whatever 
else they may suppose it to imply. Now the only difference 
between a musical and an unmusical intonation is this, that 
a musical tone consists of regular waves of sound, while 
an unmusical tone is a jarring irregular succession of un- 
equal vibrations. That the ancients spoke more musically 
than we do, especially the ancient Greeks, may be readily 
admitted, but that they absolutely sang all their words will 
not be easily believed by any one, and would render com- 
pletely nugatory the distinction between singing and speaking, 
which is as old at least as the literature and records of any 
known people. It is then, therefore, merely a question of 
degree as to the regularity, that is the music, of ancient 
and modern intonation. Of all cultivated languages, English 
is perhaps the least musical, except possibly Dutch. Then 
comes German as spoken in the north, after that German 
as spoken in the south. More musical are French, Welsh, 
especially in the pulpit, Spanish, and Italian. But the 
Greeks, especially when excited in preaching or public speak- 
ing, intone so melodiously, that something very like a tune is 
heard, of which the higher notes are always the more em- 
phatic syllables. So that if musical intonation really was 
characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this feature 
has been most faithfully preserved. The written signs for 
Greek accents, as we have them, are attributed to Aristo- 
phanes of Byzantium, but some kind of notation for marking 
stress must have existed before his time. Not only does 
Aristoxenus, Aristotle's scholar, treat of accents, but a verse 
of Euripides has been discovered with accentual marks 
written on the walls of Herculaneum; and Plato himself 
used the word Trpoo-cobla, the grammarian's term for a written 
accent. It is just possible that Trpodcodla may mean in Plato 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 49 

only the accent as heard, and not also as written, but this 
is not very likely. The Greek system of accentuation bears 
a close affinity to that of Sanscrit. 

Excepting isolated dialectic divergences, as koXos for koXos, 
which for the most part have survived in various modern 
dialects of Greece, the general system of accentuation was, 
as its high antiquity would lead us to expect, everywhere 
the same, and there cannot be the smallest doubt that the 
Homeric poems were accented in the main as we have them. 

Now in what relation did accent stand to quantity ? 

The usual reply is^ that it had nothing whatever to do 
with it, and just in this very point is said to lie the difference 
between modern and ancient versification. 

But this is not the case, for, in the first place, the w^ord 
'accent,' although the foundation of modern scansion, as 
the quantity of syllableT^was the foundation of ancient Greek 
versification, yet is by no means sufficient of itself to account 
for the run of a line. Both in ancient and modern poetry 
the apxtreKTovLKT], or sovereign science, as the Rev. G. Perkins 
well points out in the 'Journal of Philology' (vol. i. 253-263), 
is not metre, nor quantity, nor accent, but rhythm, to which 
the former are merely subsidiary. 

The recognition of the dominant importance of rhythm 
is due mainly to Bock, and the verification and development 
of the theory to Rossbach and Westphal, who are followed 
with some modifications by Dr. Heinrich Schmidt in his work 
entitled ' Die Eurhythmie,' of which only the first part, 'Die 
Eurhythmie in den Chorgesangen der Griechen,' has at pre- 
sent appeared. The relation of rhythm to metre and quantity 
are so well expressed by Mr. Perkins in his essay above 
alluded to, that I can hardly do better than quote his 
words : — 

* The master-science, that to which metric is subsidiary, and for which 
alone it exists, is the science of rhythm. The facts and details of the 

E 



50 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

mere metrician are to rhythmic what shaped stones and carved timbers 
are to architecture, not dictating the character of the structm'e, but 
themselves liable to be altered in subordination to the builder's thought. 
And when we consider how strong and self-willed is the rhythmical 
faculty, how we can make a clock tick to almost any time, it would be 
strange indeed if man's own creation, language, refused obedience to 
this plastic energy. Well, one way, and a most important way, in which 
rhythm asserts its dominion over metre is, that while recognizing and 
dealing with the metrical feet, it strips them of their independent cha- 
racter and individual ictus, and makes them parts of new and larger 
groups (to which the old rhythmic still gives the name oi feet), held 
together by one dominant ictus. Take for instance Tennyson's Locksley 
Hall. Assuming as we must that accent not quantity determines the 
relation of the syllables in English verse, the metre is trochaic tetra- 
meter catalectic. Yet no one would think of reading it by single 
trochees, with an equal stress on the first syllable of each. There may 
be some arbitrariness, more or less diversity in our modes of grouping 
and accenting, but group them we do. Most readers probably break 
the line into two rhythmical feet, each of four trochees, allowing for 
the catalexis in the last half; though they might not be equally agreed 
about the syllables on which to place the ictus. The scanning of some 
of the classical metres by dipodiae instead of single feet, which is gene- 
rally recognized as essential to the beauty of the verse, is itself a 
rhythmical rather than a metrical process. 

' But rhythm does more than combine a succession of metrical feet 
into a larger rhythmical foot with a single ictus. It takes liberties 
with metrical quantity, and declares that under certain circumstances 
a spondee or a dactyl shall be delivered as a trochee, that the 2 : 2 
relation shall for the time cease, and become, if not precisely 2:1, 
something sufficiently near to pass for it.' 

The proof that the modern rhythmicians are right in their 
principle is, that they have reduced the seeming anarchy 
of Choric and Pindaric verse to order, law, and rhythmical 
harmony, appreciable even by our modern ears. What 
before was mere prose they have rendered into poetry. 
Quantity, then, is not all in all in ancient Greek poetry, 
neither is accent all in all in modern verse. 

Here at once the absolute opposition between accent 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 51 

and quantity is somewhat softened as soon as they appear 
but subordinate parts of a higher unity, namely rhythm. 
Again, the quantity of syllables is not wholly disregarded 
in modern poetry; it is impossible that it should be so. 
Glanced must be felt to be a longer syllable than met; the 
tongue cannot possibly get over the one in the same time 
that it gets over the other : and English verses in which the 
strongest ictus always fell upon the shortest syllables would 
be felt to be intolerably bad. If any one will compare Lord 
Derby's translation of the Iliad with that of Cowper, he must 
see that just in this respect the rhythm of the former is far 
superior to that of the latter. To illustrate the difference 
by an extreme and, as regards Cowper, merely fictitious case, 
let us suppose that where Lord Derby translates 

' Prone in the dust he gnashed the brazen point/ 
which (rhythmically) would have sounded still better had 
it been 

' Prone on the ground he gnashed the brazen point/ 

Cowper had rendered 

* Upon a sod he bit a metal head/ 

which is rather worse in point of rhythmical grandeur than 

* Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper.* 

But how much worse still may the rhythm be made, by 
lengthening every syllable which has no ictus, thus (the 
reader must excuse the time-honoured practice of nonsense 
verses), — 

* Stretched thiis each bit each other's leg and head.* 

And yet the ictus falls far more regularly (in as far as ictus 
and word-accent may be regarded as identical) than in Lord 
Derby's noble line. Not only then is accent not everything 
in modern poetry, but quantity is plainly something. If we 
can now show that accent too was something in ancient 
Greek poetry, then the difference between quantitative and 

E 2 



5^ ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

accentual rhythm will resolve itself into one of degree, and 
rhythm will appear the one great unifying principle, the all 
in all of both modern and ancient verse. Now, as Mr. 
Clark remarks, 'We may infer from Aristotle (De Soph. 
Elenchis, c. iv.) that the accent was heard in the recitation 
of Homer, and from the famous story of the mistake m^ade 
by the actor Hegelochus in line 279 of the Orestes of Euri- 
pides, we may infer that it was heard also in stage dialogue/ 
Again, in Plato's Republic (399 a), Socrates, who is dis- 
cussing with Adimantus which are the best kinds of music 
for educating the warrior classes in his ideal city, says, Ovk 

olba TCLS dpiMOVias' aXKa KaraXeLTTe yioi eKcivrjv ttjv dpfiovlap, rj ev re 
TroXefiLKTJ 7rpd^€L ovtos dvbpetov kol iv Trdarj IBtaico ipyacria 7rp€7T6vT(09 
av [XifJirjo-aLTO (pdoyyovs re kol Trpoo-co^tas. 

This not only proves that in lyric poetry the accents had 
some significance, but it shows moreover that there were 
certain tunes, or classes of tunes, in which the rhythmical, 
which as rhythmicians tell us, must have been also the 
musical, beat, coincided more or less with the natural emin" 
ciaiion and the accentual stress. 

On the other hand Aristoxenus, a pupil of Aristotle, tells 

us, Aei TTjv (pcovTjv iv ro) fieXo^de'LV rag pev iTnTaaets kol dvio-ets 

d(pave2s iroLeioSai, Now there are two ways in which the 
natural or accentual stress of words may be obscured, either 
by the musical beat (time) running counter to it, or by the 
musical note rising just where in the natural stress the voice 
would be depressed. 

In modern verse some account is nearly always taken of 
the accent, but at the same time we often have two distinct 
rhythms, a musical one, and a metrical or accentual one ; 
or indeed we may say, that every accentual or metrical 
rhythm is capable of being accommodated (and in the pro- 
cess of accommodation, more or less sacrificed) to very 
various musical rhythms. The musical rhythm modifies or 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ^'^ 

disturbs the natural or accentual, both by the non-coincidence 
of its ictus, and by the lengthening (or rovr^ as the Greeks 
called it) of certain syllables. Thus in a popular modern 
Greek song the lines 

Apeyjrare ttoKlv ipao-rai ev^aLfiovas vapKL(r(TOVs, 
'n6 Tov Malov Tovs Teprrvovs kol cvoideis Trapadeicrovs' 
Kai TTjv TTapdevov (rrey^are -qris cos avSos kXlvcl' 
*Eya) dev kotttco 8t* e/xe* dneSavev €K€Lprj . . . 

becomes, when sung, 

Apeyf/d-a-a-Te 7rd | Xlv e-e-i-paa-rat 

"Evdalai-aifJLOvds | vapKL-i-l-Lcro-ovs 

'n6 Tov-ov-ov fxat I ov tov-ovs repTTVOvs 

Kal cvcoheis ira- | kcll evcadeis ira | -pabel-CL-el-eLcrovs 

Kai Tr)v napSe-e-evov areyj/a-d-aTe I tjtls cos a-a-dvSos Kkivcicieiei 

'Eyo) hev kotttco bi ipe, | aTreSavev €K€L-eL-€L-€L-vr], 

For the most part, however, we may say that the musical 
rhythm, in English, must bear a very close relation to the 
accentual. Still closer, may we infer, was the relation be- 
tween musical time and rhythm with ancient Greeks, inas- 
much as all their quantitative measures seem to have been 
formed with a direct view to music, whereas much of our 
own verse is only accidentally accommodated to a tune by 
an after-thought, or vice versa, the composer and the poet 
being usually two different persons. 

The difference then between a recited and a sung verse 
would be found in Greek neither in the metre nor in the 
rhythm, but only in the tone, that is, the ^ elevation,' of the 
voice. In other words, in recitation the accent was heard ; 
in singing it might certainly be felt, as with us, but as far 
as sound goes it was swallowed up in the music. This is 
the view of Dr. Heinrich Schmidt (Eurhythmie, p. 13), ac- 
cording to whom the verse ictus = a louder sound, the word 



54 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. . 

accent = musical elevation of tone, Mr. Clark, in the Essay 
above referred to, propounds a view exactly the opposite, 
supposing that the accent was heard in recitation only by 
means of an increase in the amount of sound, i. e. by the 
accented syllables being sounded louder than the rest. But 
if this were so, what, according to Mr. Clark's theory, be- 
came of the ictus and the rhythm ? For he says, ^ When 
the rhapsodists recited epic poems in the open air to the 
assembled multitudes at Olympia or Crissa, they must have 
chanted in monotone or nearly so, else they could not have 
been heard by the vast audience. So also in the theatres, 
the players who had to make themselves audible to thirty 
thousand spectators, must have chanted the dialogue in a 
kind of ad libitum recitative.' How then, one naturally asks, 
was the ictus of the verse represented 1 Not by raoit forcible 
or louder utterance, for that, according to Mr. Clark, was the 
way in which the word-accent was shown. Not by elevation 
in the pitch, because that is excluded by monotone. The 
fact is, ictus, which is the very essence of rhythm, has been 
overlooked by Mr. Clark altogether. He supposes that 
quantity constitutes the essence of rhythm. A more complete 
mistake could not be made. A number of long and short 
syllables may lie together in the order in which they stand in 
a hexameter verse, but ictus alone can separate them into 
bars, and, as by a magician's touch, clothe the dead skeleton 
of syllables with the life and vigour of a rhythmical succes- 
sion. Mr. Perkins, in his Essay above quoted, well remarks 
that we can make a clock tick to any time ; and we may 
add, a railway train often seems, by the rattling of its wheels 
over the regular intervals made by the joining of the rails, 
to beat time to a great variety of tunes, according as our 
fancy, or perhaps an occasional jolt, causes us to place the 
ictus here or there. Now this would be just the result with 
the hexameter, if the ictus had not been distinctly given: 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ^^ 

the pause at the end of the line, and the quantity, would have 
done something, but very litde, towards leading the ear 
towards the right ictus, and the general rhythmical effect 
would have been as uncertain, or nearly so, as the ticking of 
a clock or the jolting of a railway train. The main thing 
must then have been to show the tc/us. If the reciter 
took care of the ic/us, the accent would take care of itself. 
Certainly the accent would only be heard in as far as the 
recitative departed from the completeness of monotone. 
And some such slight departure did, I doubt not, occur; 
for to chant in perfect monotone is all but as impossible 
of execution, as it is wearisome to the ear. Yet, I must 
confess the great difficulty here is a practical one. It is 
very hard to realize the distinction between a high and a 
loud note, not indeed in theory, but in practice. It is hard 
to say whether in the language of ordinary life syllables are 
emphasized by being pronounced in a louder tone or in a 
higher key ; the two seem always to go hand in hand. And 
this is really the difficulty to the modern reciter of quantita- 
tive verse : not how to combine quantity with accent, that 
is a very simple thing, and is a problem which we solve 
practically in every sentence we utter ; but how to combine, 
and at the same time distinguish, the accent of the word, 
and the ictus or beat of the verse. Yet, after all, the difficulty 
is one of small significance. As we have before observed, 
the accent would be always felt, whether heard or not, and 
could be no more mentally ignored than it is in a modern 
song, where very frequently it is in direct opposition to the 
musical beat. 

That notice was taken of the accent in writing verses will 
appear from the following considerations. First, we cannot 
ignore the accent even in modern song, w^here the musical 
beat by no means necessarily coincides with the accentual. 
Here, if the coincidence is too marked and constant, we get 



^6 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

a jingling and monotonous effect. If, on the other hand, the 
musical beat is always at variance with the accentual, then 
we feel at once that the tune was never made for the words. 

Precisely the same relation should we a priori suspect to 
subsist between the rhythm ( = scansion = musical beat) of a 
Greek verse and its accentual emphasis. In other words, 
we should expect the accent as a rule neither wholly to 
coincide nor wholly to clash with the scansion, and this 
is precisely the case. Those lines in the ancient poets in 
which accent and rhythmical ictus exactly coincide, as well as 
those in which they are exactly opposed, are the exceptions, 
occasionally introduced no doubt by way of variety, but 
avoided as a rule. 

Of lines in which the accentual and quantitative rhythm 
coincide, I borrow the following examples from Mr. Sophocles' 
' Modern Greek Grammar,' and * Glossary of Later and 
Byzantine Greek,' pp. 21 and 50 respectively. 

Iliad, ii. 188:— 

' OvTiva [Jiiv ^aacXrja kol e^oxov avbpa Ki')(€Lr]. 

Odyssee, ii. 121 : — 

Tdciiv ovTLs oyioia vo-qfjiara Hi^vekoTT^ir}, 

lb. ii. 225 : — 

MevTcop 69 p* 'Odvarjos dfxvjJLOvos r)€V iraipog, 

Aristophanes, Ach. 682 : — 

"Avbpa TlScovov aTrapdrrcov kol TapdrTOiv kol kvicwv^ 
lb. Eq. 317:— 

Tots' dypoLKOKTiv TTavovpycd^ coorre (patvecrOaL 7ra-)(y, 

lb. Vesp. 38 :— 

T^9 dpTOTTcoKibos \a66vT eKki-^ajxev tov oXfxoi/, 

lb. Lys. 310 : — 

Kap [XT] KoXovvTOiV TOV? po^ovs ;(aXa)0"tz^ al yvvoLK^?. 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 57 

Mr. Sophocles gives many more instances, which might no 
doubt be considerably multiplied. 

He also adduces, among others, the following examples 
of a double rhythm, the one accentual, the other quantitative. 

Quantitative Trochaics, 
Aeschylus, Pers. 157-159: — 

'£1 ^adv^ayvcDV apao-cra Xlepo-iScDv VTrepTaTTj 
MrjTTjp T] ISep^ov yepaia, ;^alp6, Aaptlov yvvai, 
GeoG pev cvvdreipa Hepacov, Seov be kol pr]T7]p ecpvSy 
'Hv tl pr) dalpcov TraXaio? 

Aristophanes, Ach. 676, 712, 718; Nub. 576, 585:— 

Ol yipovT€9 ol TToXatol p€p(j)6p€(rSa rfj ttoXcl, 
To7s veoLCTL §* evpvTrpcoKTOs kol \akos x^ KXetvlov^ 
Tov yepovTa T(o~~yepovTiy top veov bi tcj veco, 
HdtKTjpevaL yap vplv pepcpopeaff ivavrlov, 
Trju OpvaWid^ els eavTov evdeoas ^vve\Kvaas, 

Accentual iambic tetrameters, or (ttIxoi ttoXltlkoI, the same 
as all the modern Greek popular ballads. 

Accentual Trochaics. 
lb. Nub. 1045; Vesp. 241, 244; Lys. 313, 365:— 

Ka/rot Tiva yvayprjv excav yf/eyeis to. Seppa \ovTpa ; 
'2lpI3\ov de (pao-t ;^p77/xara)i/ exeLV dnavTes avrou, 
'Ett' avTov cos Kokovpevovs hv rj^iK-qo-ev' dX\d. 
Tls ^vXXdlSoiT av tov ^vkov tcou ev 'Edpco CTTpaTrjyayv ; 
' Atttov povov ^Tp(iTvK\lbos rw baKTiiXco TrpoaekScov. 

Quantitatively scanned, these have the rhythm of the (ttIxos 
TToXiTiKos, more usually found as an accentual measure. 

Rare as such exceptions are, we cannot attribute them to 
accident. Their comparatively frequent occurrence in Aris- 
tophanes is in itself suggestive. Is it not extremely probable 
that such lines were inserted by the poet, that it might be 



58 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

optional to the actor, as he judged best for comic effect, 
either to say or sing them, that is, to say them according 
to the accent, or to sing them according to the quantity? 
That accentual rhythm was perfectly well understood by 
the ancients, and was in fact among some nations at least 
much older than quantitative, is almost certain. The Satur- 
nian measure among the Romans, the epic metre of the 
old German poetry, as the ' NiebelungenUed,' are essentially 
the same as the English popular measure, so often found 
in nursery rhymes, and ballads. Byron compares, 

' A captain bold of Halifax, who lived in country quarters,' 

with 

EtTTe [xas a> (piXeXkijva ttcos (p€p€LS rrjv CTKXa^iav 
Kat Tr]v drrapayoprjTou rcov TovpKcov rvpavviav. 

We have just seen the same metre, both accentual and 
quantitative, in Aristophanes. 

In Latin and German it occurs in a somewhat mutilated 
form : as indeed not unfrequently in English, e. g. 

' The king was in his counting house, | counting out his money, 
The queen was in her parlour, | eating bread and honey.' 

In the first line, if we divide it into two fcwXa, to use the 
language of the rhythmicians, we get an external catalexis, 
which we must remedy either by pause or by tovt] : in the 
second line we have both internal and external catalexis, 
which we must remedy, the first by rovq, and the second 
by TOVT] or pause. 

Compare the Saturnian verse :— 

Quod re siia difeidens aspere afleicta 
Parens timens heic vovit voto hoc soliito 
Decuma facta poloiicta leibereis lubentes. 

More uncouth and truncated still is the old German epic 
metre : — 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 59 

' Gunther und Hagen die Recken wohl gethan. 
Beriethen mit Untreuen ein'n Birschen in den Tann : 
Mit ihren scharfen Spiessen wollten sie jagen gehn 
Baren, Schwein und Biiffel ; was konnte kiihnres g'schehn.* 

' How such lines/ observes Mr. Clark, referring to the 
(jTLxoL ttoXltlkoI above quoted, ' would have puzzled Aristoxe- 
nus or Dionysius ! ' 

I think Dionysius himself gives us a pretty clear answer 
to the question what he would have thought of the ac- 
centual modern heroic measure, when he gives as accentual 
(Trpoacp^LKovs) the following lines which scan precisely in the 
same way : — 

Ov jBs^rfKo^ cos Xeyerat rov veov Aiovvaov 

Kayo) b' i^epya(Tir}s [reading corrupt] o^pyiao-fjievos ^K(d, 

Hephaestion's Enchiridion completes the triplet thus : — 

'Odevcou HeXovaLttKov KPecfyaios irapa TsXjjLa. 

We will now once more return to the question, What was 
the value of the accent in quantitative rhythm ? To answer 
that question it will be necessary to remind the reader once 
more that rhythm is the apxireKTovLKr] of all verse, and 
quantity and accent only the subordinate means of which 
rhythm is the end. But rhythm would inevitably degenerate 
into jingle if it were not for some counteracting tendency. 
A verse which scans too easily runs away with the reader, 
and rattles off with ever-increasing speed like a railway train. 
Now there are two available means of checking this jingling or 
rattling tendency. The one is quantity, the other is accent. 
Both are available, whether in quantitative or in accentual 
rhythm. Accentual rhythm is perhaps more Hable than 
quantitative to degenerate into jingle, because the natural 
accent of each word gives at once the rhythmical ictus ; the 
verse consequently tends to scan itself. This tendency may 
be remedied partly by the inherent quantity of certain long 



6o ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 

syllables upon which no accent falls ; partly by introducing 
an occasional variation between that rhythmical ictus which 
is given by the general or pervading accentual scansion, and 
the actual stress on particular words; so that the word- 
accent shall only generally, and not in every case, represent 
the rhythmical beat. Both means are needed, because, firstly, 
in accentual rhythm, quantity is of so litde account, that 
its retarding tendency is not sufficient of itself to prevent 
a verse from becoming jingling and monotonous; and 
secondly, the variation in accent must be restrained within 
narrow limits, or it would spoil the music of the rhythm. 

Compare the somewhat monotonous and jingling rhythm 
of the ordinary modern Greek (ttIxos ttoXltlkos — 

KaXa TO e^ovv ra ^ovva, Kokofioip eiv ol KafJiTTOL^ 

liov Xdpov ^6u 7ravT€)(ovv€y Xdpov dev KapTepovve' 

To KaXoKGipL rrpopara, kol tov xeipo^va ;;(ioz/ta. 

Tpeis dvdpoofjLevoL fioukovrai tov adr) va TcraKiaovv^ 

*0 evas Xeyee, tov Mat va (Byfj, aWos to KokoKaipiy 

K' 6 TpiTos TO x.^voTTCopo^ 770V TTeipTovve TO. CJ)vXka. 

Kopr] ^av6r] tovs ixlXyjaev avTOV 's tov KaTco KocrpLO' 

^ IldpT£ fjL€, dvdpcofievoi jjlov^ k ifxe '$• tov irdvco Kocrpio, 

' Koprjy jBpovTovv TO. pov^d o'ov, (pvcovv koX to. p.aWid aov^ 

KTVTrdeL kol to Koklyi crov^ kol pas voydet 6 XdposJ 

' Eyo) TO, pov^a Pydvco Ta, Kal to, paWid to, ko^oh, 

Kat TCi KakLyoTrdnovTcra *$• Trjv aKdXa t aTridovco. 

UdpTe p€, dvdpcopevoi p,ov, k epe *s top Trdvoa Koapov, 

Na Tvdco, va Idco ttj pdvva pov, ttcos ^Xt/Serat yia peva, 

Na TrdcOy va iSw t dd€p(pLa pov, ttods KXatovv yia epeva. 

* KopT], (T€va T dbep(pia aov els tov x^P^ x^P^^^^^? 

Koprj, criva rj pdvva aov 's ttjv povya Kov^evvLd^ei, — • 

with the lines quoted above :— 

Ape\j/aT€ rrdXiv ipacrTai evBalpovas vapKLcrcrovs 

'n6 TOV Matov T0V9 TepTTVovs Ka\ €v6)b€Ls 7rapabeL(TOV9* 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 6 1 

Kat Tr]v TvapSevov aTe-yjrare, ^tl^ cos avSos kXlv€L' 
'Eya> dev kotttcd bC e/xe* aiTeOavcv iKeivrj. 
Aev KOTTTet, 6 avkpaaros jxvpcrivrjs KKdbov ttXcov' 
XXevd^ei ttjv obvvqv tov to avBos to (jopalov. 
AvvaTttL fjioi/ou TTevOijia^ Kvirdpio-crov, va bpeyfrrj 
Be^aprjpevrjs K€(j)aXrjs to peTcoTTOv va a-Teyj/rj. 
K' eyo) -qyaTVYjcra noTe, k iyco dvTrjya7Tr]6rjV' 
'AXXa bev iXrjo-povrjo-a ttXtjv (pev ! eXrjo-povqdrjv. 
Aeu etVafc 6 jStos Maios aloovios' bev eivai' 
MapalpovTttL at dvdrjpal tov epcoTos pvp(TLvai' 
Kat (f)€vy€L Tj veoTTjS pas, cos do-TpaTrrj Tax^la, 
^€ls opKOL (TTaOepoTrjTos els (ttyjOt] yvvaLKela. 

Here it will be observed bpe^aTe stands as regards the 

metre for bpeyj/^aTe, epacTTal for epaaTai, -^tis for tjtls, bvvaTai 
for dvvaTai, dvSrjpal iov^JivSrjpai, d(TTpa7rrj for cio-TpaTrr], and SO 

on : the word-accent sometimes clashing with the ictus, as 
in bpeyf/aTe, bvvaTat, sometimes standing in the place of the 
fainter ictus, as in do-TpaTrrj, PejBaprjpei^rjs, K€<pa\ris. The quantity 
of certain syllables has also a retarding influence, as in 

dvTrjyanrjSrjv, which Stands irrationallter for dvT7]ya7Tr}dr]v. I 

consider the above one of the most perfect examples I have 
met in any language, of melody without monotony, and 
rhythm reHeved from jingle. 

In quantitative verse the same principles may be seen 
at work, but as accent is here the secondary element, and 
one rather felt than heard, the influence of quantity as a 
retarding force comes more prominently forward. The 
hexameter, according to its original rhythmical intention, 
consisted of dactyls, as 

^Avdpd poL evvene Mouora TrGKvTpoTTOv os pdXa TToWd, 

with one spondee at the end to indicate, as it were, that 
the rhythm had run itself out of breath, and must pause, 
before beginning again. Here the long syllables, with the 



62 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

exception of the final syllaha anceps, all receive the ictus. 
Spondees were then substituted for dactyls, in the hexameter 
verse : — 

*Tardior ut paullo graviorque rediret ad aures.' 

It is true that, metrically, the long syllable is regarded 
as equal to two short syllables, but the rhythmical effect 
is different, because, now, long syllables occur without the 
ictus. No one doubts that the spondaic hexameter is slower 
and more majestic than the dactylic. A stronger measure 
was adopted to restrain the impetuosity of the iambic tragic 
verse, in accordance with the principle that Rest is the 
chief characteristic of Greek tragedy. Here in alternate 
feet long syllables were substituted for short at the discretion 
of the poet. The ear tells us at once why the long syllables 
were only allowed in the first half of each fierpov: that is, 
before the second, and not before the fourth syllable. These 
second syllables received the stronger ictus; therefore the 
effect of the long syllable immediately preceding was par- 
tially neutralized : had a long syllable stood before the 
weaker ictus, it would have overpowered it, and spoilt 
the rhythm. 

So much for the influence of quantity considered as a 
check to the rapidity of rhythm. 

We shall now proceed to show that accent had also a real 
though a secondary importance in this respect. The verses 
of Virgil are acknowledged to run more smoothly than 
those of Lucretius. Why.? Mainly, without a doubt, 
because Virgil's scan accentually as well as quantitatively, 
not indeed completely, or they would be mere jingle, but 
comparatively. 

Compare, for instance— 

* Tityre, tii patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi 
Silvestrem, tenui Musam meditaris avena,' 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 6^ 

with . 

* Quorum Agrigentinus cum primis Empedocles est.' 

The fact is, Virgil seems to have exquisitely struck the 
mean between lines that scan themselves and lines that can 
hardly be scanned. None read like mere prose, none are 
mere jingle. 

Lucretius mostly fell into one of the two opposite extremes. 
Either his lines read accentually, are mere prose, or they 
scan themselves, which, though with him a rarer, is a yet 
greater defect. E.g. — 

' Hie est vasta Charybdis et hie Aetnaea minantur.' 

Such lines are great favourites with schoolboys, and are 
proportionately rare in Virgil. 

If we compare the Latin hexameter with the Greek, we 
shall find the main difference to consist in this : that in 
Latin, accent and ictus nearly always coincide at the end 
of the verse, the contrary being only possible when the last 
word is a monosyllable, as in 

* Empedocles est ; odora canum vis : ' 

inasmuch as the last syllable but one in Latin, if long, 
invariably receives the stress. In Greek, on the other hand, 
such endings as 

akye* edrjKe^ AavaoicriP dprjyoiv 

are common. 

Greek verse has thus the advantage of very great variety 
as compared with Latin. At the same time, the relation 
of accent and ictus is so nicely observed, that there is hardly 
in all Homer a line which, accentually read, sounds like 
mere prose. 

The same holds good of iambic verse, while in the choric 
measures there is nearly always an accentual rhythm, which, 



64 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

though it does not exactly coincide with the quantitative j 
is generally sufficient to indicate it : for example— 

'icb y^veal ppor&u, 

&)S vfJias icra kol to fjLrjbev ^o^o-as ivapiBfJico, 

TLS yapj TLS avTjp TrKeov 

ras evdaifjLovlas (pepei 

f} TOaGVTOU OdOV doK€lu 

Kol bo^avT arroKklvai ^ 

To (TOP TOL TTapdbeLyjjL e^cov^ 

TOP (TOP daijjiopay top abv, o) rXaficop OlbtTTodaj ^poToyp 

oldep ixaK.api^(0. 

Or again— 

T poxohiP^lTai b op^iaO^ eklyb-qPy 
€^(0 Se dpopov (j}€pofAaL Xvacrrjs 
7rv€vpaTi pidpyco yXcocrcnqs CLKpaTi]?, 

Here the last line gives the clue to the quantitative scansion, 
but a regular accentual rhythm runs through the first two. 

In the iambic trimeter the Greeks seem specially to have 
avoided the regular coincidence of ictus and accent at the 
end of a linCo The immense majority of verses, whether in 
Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, or Aristophanes, have no 
accent on the last syllable, and at least thirty out of every 
fifty will be found to have the accent on the last syllable 
but one. The later imitators observed this, and it finally 
became a rule that the end of every iambic verse should be 
accented on the penultimate. The same desire to check the 
too rapid run of the iambic trimeter was the origin of the 
choliambic verse. All the choliambics of Babrius are ac- 
cented on the last syllable but one. Thus, in the desire to 
avoid jingle, the later poets fell into the opposite extreme 
of harsh monotony, which the fine taste of the great originals 
enabled them to avoid. There is, then, a law in the very 
lawlessness of the Ancients — ^ Ars est celare artem.' 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 6^ 

What has been called the clashing of the accentual with the 
quantitative beat constitutes the real beauty of quantitative 
measure. 

It is this TVTTos avTLTVTTos which makes the charm and 
melody of the old heroic verse. The accent and quantity 
of these two words as well as the thought expressed in them 
seem to me exactly to embody the idea of beauty in quanti- 
tative versification^ which is, as beauty always is, the harmony 
of contrasts. Where both coincide, as very rarely in Epic 
poetry, — 

' Indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus,' — 

then the other part of the line (in which, happily for my 
illustration, this coincidence takes place) is realized : — 

The rhythm of Greek prose was, no doubt, wholly ac- 
centual, and is to my mind completely destroyed if read 
according to the Latin accent, as is done in our schools 
and universities. I will give as an example the concluding 
words of Aeschines' oration against Ctesiphon : — 

'Eyo) fjLev ovv a) yrj koI rjXie Ka\ dperr] koI avveais Kol TraLdela, fj 
diayLvaxTKOfxep to. KaXa Koi ra alaxpd, (3€porj6T]Ka Kol e'iprjKa. Kai 
el [i€V KoXcos KOL (1^1(09 Tov ddLKijiiaTOs KaTTjyoprjKay eiirov o)s i^ov- 
\6prjv el be evbeecTTepcoSf cds edvvdprjv. 'Ypels de kol €K tcov 
elprjpevcov Xoycav koI eK tcov TrapakeXetppevav avTol ra diKaia kul rclt 
(TVfKpepovTa vTvep rrjs noXecos \l/rj(j)L(TaaSe. 

Compare the following words from the conclusion of a 
modern Greek funeral oration on Lord Byron : — 

2u §e, vneprjCJiavov 20YAI, eprjpov kol eyK.aToXeXeifxp.evov, eva 
(jiplao'eLs arjpepov dnb tovs r})(ovs tov noXepov, tov^ Oopv^ovvTas 
TO ebacfios croVj Krjbevopev rjpels rjcrvx^^ TeKvov crov 7rpoa(pLXes, 
TOV OTTolov ol 6(j)6aXpoLy did TravTos KXeiaOevTe?, dev Sd ere tdcocnv 
eXevOepov. 

F 



66 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

In conclusion, with regard to the practical question, how 
we are to pronounce Greek, I can only state, from my per- 
sonal experience and that of others similarly circumstanced, 
my unalterable conviction, that the man who has once 
learned to read Greek fluently, with accent and intonation 
as the Greeks read it, will never be able to tolerate either 
Homer or Xenophon or Sophocles read with the Latin 
accent and the miscalled Erasmian pronunciation. 

Any one who has followed the arguments and evidence 
adduced in the preceding chapter, must, I am sure, be 
convinced that the way in which the ancient Greeks pro- 
nounced their language was at least far more like the present 
Greek pronunciation, handed down as it has been by an 
unbroken line of tradition, than the wholly arbitrary system 
which the followers of Erasmus have invented : while few 
have ever questioned, I may say among continental scholars ' 
no one has ever doubted, the propriety of reading Greek 
according to the accent. 

If, moreover, the Greek accent alone preserves the true 
rhythm of the noble orations of Demosthenes ; if a practical 
familiar sense of it is absolutely necessary, as I have tried 
to show it is, in order to distinguish a bad verse from a 
good one, is it not time we abandoned, once and for ever, 
a barbarous method, whose only justification is that it 
enables Englishmen to speak Greek so that, in the words 
of Fuller, they can understand one another, which nobody 
else can? I subjoin a short sentence, with an interlinear 
EngUsh transcription embodying the chief peculiarities of 
modern Greek pronunciation : — 

'O ovpavos Koi rj yr) ovk iTiKdaOrjaav €v6vs, dWa dveTT- 
O ooranos tkeh ee yee ook eplastheessan ephtheess alia anep- 

Tvx^V^CL^ oKlyov Kar oXlyov ovd\ ol civSpcoTTOL ol viol 
teekhtheessan oleeghon kat' oleeghon oodh, ee anthropee ee ee-ee 



ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 67 

rov Occiv Tjvpedrjcrav €^aL(j)i^7]<f reXeioi, cos kol vvv, ovb^ 

too theoo eebhr^theessan exephneess telee-ee oas tkeh neen oodh' 

€K Tov PdSovs rod (tkotovs Ka\ ^aoTLKJJs (Tvy)(y(J€(os 

ek too bhahthooss too skoa-tooss tkeh khaoteekeess seengkheessSoss 

dyyeXojv (TaXiny^LV 7rpo€K\rj6T](Tav, ovde rov TToXepov (pvaeL 
angelloan salpeengxeen proekleetheessan oodhe ton-bolemon feessee 

dyaTTcbcrtj oX\a nepl rrjs iavrocn/ (TCOTrjptas (ppov- 

ah-gh-ah-poassee ahlah. peri -tees eh-ahphtoan soateereeahss phron- 

Tl(0VT€Sj (j)€VyOV(TL TTjV CLOTrXiaV, KCLL ip^TTLTTTOVCnV 

deezondess phebhghoossee teen ah-oa-plee-ahn tkeh embeeptoosseen 

eptcrt KOL pidx^aLS, kol ttju avdrjv tov ^'Ap€OS 

erreessee tkeh mahkhehss tkeh teen ah-bhdheen too 'Ahreos 

(fiSeyyeo-BaL pLavSavovai. 

phthenggestheh mahnthahnoossi. 

N.B. — The circumftex accent sounds as the acute, and 
there is no reason to think that this was ever otherwise; 
the circumflex being simply a way of recording the fact 
that an oxytone syllable had swallowed up a barytone by 
means of contraction : the acute accent, therefore, is plainly 
the predominating one, while the grave would be felt just 
in proportion as the uncontracted form was present to the 
mind. When dyaTrd-el becomes ayaTra, there is no reason 
to think that the ' is heard any more than the Icora suhscrip- 
ium, which is swallowed up by the a, just as the grave accent 
is by the acute. As to the written grave accent, it indicates 
that the syllable on which it stands receives a slight stress 
as compared with the unaccented syllables, but one which 
is almost lost by comparison with the accent of the word 
which follows it ; so that a word accented on the last syllable 
reads almost as if it were part of the next. 



F 2 



CHAPTER IV. 

On the Origin and Development of Modern 
Greek Accidence. 



If the question were asked, what is the origin of the 
Greek of the present day ? is it the offshoot of Byzantine 
Hterature, the creation of Church fathers, or of philosophers, 
sophists, and rhetoricians, or is its source to be looked for 
in the common dialect of the Ptolemaic era, in the idioms of 
Dorians, Aeolians, and Boeotians, or the vulgarisms of the 
Athenian market-place ? the true answer, perhaps, would be, 
it had its beginning in none of these and in all of them : in 
none of them alone, and in all of them together. 

In speaking of the history of a language we should bear 
in mind the distinction between its outer and inner part, the 
form and the matter, the skeleton of grammar, and the life 
which makes that skeleton a living body with a living souL 
These two parts of language should never be confounded, 
and yet it is sometimes hard to keep them separate. For 
there is an essential, as well as an actual connection between 
them, which may be set forth as follows. 

The mere shapes and changes of words in a language 
may be called its grammar, while the thought of which these 
shapes and changes are the expression may be spoken of as 



ON MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 6g 

the metaphysic of the age to which it belongs. But be- 
tween this outer part — the grammar, and this inner part- — 
the thought, comes a third something, which is neither 
altogether outward nor altogether inward, and which, for 
want of a better name, we may call the logic of a lan- 
guage, or the way in which the thought finds utterance 
in words. 

Now, just as the metaphysic of one age will tend to be- 
come the logic of the next, so logic will in its turn become 
petrified into grammar, as we shall soon see by examples in 
the language before us. Hence the difficulty of drawing a 
rigid line of demarcation between the mere vehicle of thought 
and the thought itself. Grammar and thought, linked as 
they are in the nature of the case by logic, which is the way 
in which the one finds utterance in the other, merge together 
by scarcely felt degrees, like the waves of the stream of time 
which bears them along, so that it is often hard to say 
whether we are treading in the domain of philosophy 
or of grammar, or lingering on the border-land between 
the two. 

The combination of causes in producing phenomena is 
however no excuse for confusing them, when those phe- 
nomena are to be explained ; and when we are attempting to 
write the history of a language, w^e must beware of attri- 
buting every change and development to one source. We 
should begin by inquiring whether there be any part of 
language which is quite independent of the progress of 
human thought. If there be, we may then proceed to in- 
quire what are the causes which may have affected its de- 
velopment. Then we can go on to consider the influence 
of intellectual progress on such part of language as must 
be considered liable to be affected by it. 

Nor can we be long in admitting that there is that in 
language which may be changed independently of the ad. 



70 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

vance of thought, or remain unchanged in spite of it ; and 
this is the mere form which words or inflections assume, 
which is a very different thing, it must be remembered, from 
changes in their usage and meaning ; or, again, from their 
disuse or introduction. To make this clear by an example. 
It is plainly, as regards the history of thought, a matter of 
indifference whether the word ohos be written with or without 
a digamma, whether we write eVrl as in Doric, eVrt as in 
Attic, or ehe as in modern Greek, whether icovrov as in 
Herodotus, iavrov or avTov. It is very different when the 
Homeric demonstrative 6, 77, t6 becomes the simple article, 
or when the infinitive mood in later Greek is supplanced by 
the subjunctive with tva. 

In accordance with the above remarks it is proposed in 
the following pages, first, to consider the mere forms of 
w^ords and inflections, or the purely outward part of the 
Greek language ; then the structure, in which the movement 
of thought already begins to play a part ; finally, the use 
and formation of words, in which the inner life of the lan- 
guage attains its greatest significance. 

First, then, as to mere grammatical forms ; or, 



I. The Accidence of Modeen Greek. 

It must not be supposed that every form discussed under 
this head is in common use in the language of literature and 
of educated men. The cultivated language for the most 
part preserves the grammatical forms of the age of Thucy- 
dides, avoiding, as a rule, all the extremities of the later 
Attic dialect, as, for instance, OdXarra for OdXao-aa, or x^p- 
povrjoros for x^P^o^^^-oy. In the language of the common 
people, however, the following peculiarities may be briefly 
noticed. 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 7 1 

a. ^o^ay and words like it, make in the genitive Trjs ^6^as, 

in the plural ^ do^ms, ace. raU dS^ats = ras do^a^, 

b. A host of nouns belonging to different declensions are 

made to follow one. Thus raixlas, ''AXvs, Mdpns, or Mapr???, 

contracted from MdpTLos, ''ApT^?, ndpLs, K€<pa\as, are, in the 
singular number, all decHned alike, namely, by cutting off 
the sign of the nominative -?, in the genitive and vocative, 
and changing it to v for the accusative. 

This V is dropped in pronunciation where the phonetic 
laws of the language admit it. 

c. The plural of many words, especially of foreign origin, 
is formed by adding -des to the stem, as Trao-ddes from Trao-a?, 
pashas ; fiaifiovdes from rj fjLa'ifjLov, monkeys ; fiavuddes, from rj 
fjidvpa, mothers. 

These plurals are ahvays paroxytone, whatever the accent 
of the word in the singular. 

d. Many feminines, whose root vowel is « or ov, take 
s in the genitive singular, as 77 fidijxov, ttjs iidiixovs, 17 Kco, rris 
Kajs (exactly the reverse of the classical form, which in this 

case is 17 Koos-, r^s Ko5). 

e. There are a few irregular nouns of a compound de- 
clension, especially verbals, in iiiov, as t6 ypd^ifiov, genitive 

Tov ypa-^lparosy plural to. ypayj/Lp^ara. 

y. Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are com- 
mon, as Tj alya, 6 rrarepas, 6 ^acnXeas. 

g. Of the pronouns, e/xe often appears as ipha, and (T€ as 
eVe and ideva, r)p,€2s becomes often ipels, and in the accusative 
both ifxas and pa<;. The latter, used as an encHtic, supplies 
the place both of rjpas and r]pci)v, 

vfjLels becomes a-els and eaels, ace. and enclitic possessive 
aas, a-a^. The article, as enclitic and procHtic, is used for 
the personal pronoun in oblique cases. 

In the verbs : 

h. Xeyovai becomes \eyovv Or Xeyovve. For eXeyvv we have 



"]% ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

eXeya ; for eXe^ay, eXe^es ; for iXe^are, eXef ere. In the paSSive, 
instead of Xeyu or Xeyet, we find Xeyeo-at, for Xcyofxcda, Xeyo- 

fieo-re, Xcyofiaarav, and various Other forms down to the tragic 
Xey6jJL€(TSa. 

For iXexBrjv we get iXexOrjKa. In the imperative aorist act. 

Xe^e for Xegoz/, and do. passive Xe^ov for XexOrjri. 

2. In the present tense of contracted verbs in dco, w, the 
third person is often uncontracted, as dyandeL for dyana, 
'kyarrcodi appears sometimes as dyairovv or -ouve, sometimes 

as dyairdv^, 'Ayajrovficv is written for dyajrcojjLev, whereaS voeei, 

voel, and the Hke generally become vodei, &c. ; erlfxcov is in- 
liovo-Qj '€s, '€ ; '00 becomes -dz/o), on the analogy of djvco for 
dvco, ivTvv(o for ivTvoi ; SO bkcD becomes Uvco. In ancient 
Greek we may regard alvco (pronounced evco) as a strength- 
ening of eo), and dvoi as a strengthening of ao). 

j. The verb el}x\ presents all the appearance of a verb in 
the middle voice, being conjugated thus : et/xat, eldai, uv€, 

e'lfxeSay eiaOe, clve ; impf. fjixovv, rjo-o, rjTOy fjp.e6a, rfcrS^^ rjrov ; inf 
elo-Sm; imper. eao. 

k. The present participle active often appears as an inde- 
clinable metaplastic in as : ovras, Xeyovras, &c. The feminine 
Xeyovo-a is however by no means disused. The only other 
participles in use among the uneducated are the present 
passive and perfect passive, the latter minus the redupli- 
cation, as ypafifihos, OXifjifxevoi, Spafxfxhos, The present par- 
ticiple sometimes appears as though formed from the con- 
jugation in -fjLLj e.g. epxdfxevos, Xeydfievos, The termination -/xt, 
however, is never found in the common language of the 
people. 

Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence. 
Let us attempt to account for them and to trace their develop- 
ment. We will begin by inquiring what causes remain to us, 
when we have eliminated those which belong to the intellectual 
movements of the Greek mind, and, of course, could explain 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 73 

nothing so merely external as the bare accidence of a lan- 
guage. 

First amongst the influences which would remain to be 
considered is the levelling tendency common to all lan- 
guages, or, in other words, the ever-increasing desire to do 
away with irregularities in grammar. 

It may be said that all language is originally regular in 
intention, but in the first formation of words, the stubborn- 
ness of matter, that is, the difficulty of pronouncing certain 
combinations of sounds, causes irregularities in the result. 
These irregularities are then transmitted from race to race, 
and the reason of them being forgotten, their exist- 
ence becomes an inconvenience, and a levelling tendency 
sets in\ 

So in English we now say, he climbed, he helped, for he 
clomh, he holp, and in Spanish the participle apreso has almost 
given way to aprendido. Here then at once we see the 
explanation of such form.s as tov ''Apr), rod ^'A\v, &c. The 
first instance of the latter form, so far as I am aware, is to 
be found in an anonymous writer of the tenth century, 
known as Theophanes Continuatus. 

In Constantine Porphyrogenitus, also an author of the 
tenth century (905 — 959), we get ixopoyevrj as the vocative of 
fjLovoyevrjs, Porphyrogenitus, as he tells us himself, used 
frequently the current forms of the vulgar Greek of his day, 
excepting in his Life of St. Basil, which is written in an 
artificial language in imitation of classical writers. His 
numerous modernisms will be noticed in their place. The 
very same tendency made the ancient Greeks say ttjv epiv 
instead of ttjv cpida, tov yeXcDv for TOV yeXoora, and the like. 

^ Accordingly Sanscrit is more irregular than Greek, and Greek 
than Latin ; that is, the older a language is, the less regular is its 
grammar. 



74 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

We have also in Homer epos, epov for 'ipcos, epcuTa, Another 
similar influence is the tendency to metaplasms or secondary 
formations. From one point of view this may be regarded 
as one of the forms of the tendency to simplification above 
noticed, for it is plain if we turn ^ao-ikcvs, yepcov^ ''Apa\jr, ^^hpj 
into ^aaiXeas, yepovras, "Apa^ag, civbpas, and decline them all 
like Tapias, we have got one scheme of declension instead of 
five. But still it remains to be explained how such a form 

as avdpas COuld arise from dvrjp, or pao-tXeas from ^ao-iXevs, 

If we turn to the Septuagint we shall find our answer. 
There such forms as r6v jBaonXeav, Tr)v alyav are of frequent 
occurrence, and it is plain that such forms postulate the 
nominatives 6 jBao-iXeas, r] alya. Yet such forms are nowhere 
found till we enter the confines of modern Greek (if we 
except a few names of animals and birds occurring in Aris- 
totle's Natural History, as, for instance, daKakodiras from do-- 
KaKdi\jr), These metaplastic accusatives may have first existed 
alone, and the nominatives and other cases may have been 
formed from them. Yet the fact that the original form of 
yepcov, K.r.X. was yepovTs, may explain why yepovras, which is 
only yepovTs made pronounceable, is the vulgar equivalent of 
the classical yepcov. For were yepovras simply metaplastic, we 
should expect always to find only yepovra as the genitive, but 
yepovTos, dvdpos, narpos, &c. are the more usual forms even in 
the vernacular. In all likelihood the v was added to the old 
accusative merely from euphonic reasons to avoid the hiatus. 
It may be that it was almost silent, or seemed so to a Greek 
ear, when followed by a consonant, even when it formed an 
essential part of the word. This is the case in the present 
day, and the explanation of it is to be found in the pecu- 
liarity of Greek pronunciation. All consonants are pro- 
nounced by the Greeks with the utmost force and distinct- 
ness of which they admit; and v, being incapable of emphatic 
utterance, is by comparison scarcely heard except when 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 75 

followed either by a vowel or some consonant, the pro- 
nunciation of which it affects and thereby preserves its own 
existence. Thus in tt^v Klyv7TTo{v) the v of Tr]v is never lost, 
whereas in tt]{v) '2dp,o{v) it is completely evanescent ; while 
in rr]v TTokiv (pronounced rT^/it-bolin) it is preserved. 

Now where the v is so evanescent a letter, its presence is 
naturally imagined wherever it would facilitate pronunciation, 
and it would soon be liable to be written, though not 
sounded, even where there were no such reason for its 
introduction. There may however have been a special 
reason for accusatives like alyav and (Baaikeav, Comparative 
philology teaches us that a v has been lost in these accusa- 
tives, as also in the pronouns ae and €fi€. What wonder then 
if this same v should have lived on in the mouth of the 
common people, and 5p>peared in the Septuagint, the lan- 
guage of which is so evidently, as far as it departs from the 
classical standard (a few Hebraisms of course excepted), the 
vulgar Greek of the period. This consideration suggests a 
further explanation of the grammatical phenomena of later 
and modern Greek. This is nothing else than the simple 
and well-known fact that archaisms are constantly per- 
petuated in the language of the vulgar which have long 
since been lost to literature. Our own dialects are sufficient 
proof of this, to go no further. Witness / can-na, hes no 
rechi, kie, we ddn, for / cannot, hes not right, cows, we do — 
where we have sounds or grammatical forms preserved to 
us which cultivated English ignores. Now to speak first of 
the language of the Septuagint, no mistake could be greater 
than to imagine that it was an artificial dialect, the results of 
an indiscriminate reading-up of the language. According to 
this theory, as recently enunciated by the Grinfield lecturer 
on the Septuagint at Oxford (Michaelmas Term, 1868), the 
Greek of the Septuagint is a farrago of words culled at 
random from Epic poetry, Attic Prose, and every conceivable 



76 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

dialect, and with a grammar, we are left to suppose, invented 
by the writers themselves. With the utmost respect for the I 
learned lecturer, I would submit that such a theory is im- 
probable in itself, and does not explain the phenomena of 
the Septuagint. First, it is inconceivable that there should 
not have been found, even at the time when the earliest parts 
of the translation were made, Jews at Alexandria perfectly 
familiar with Greek as a spoken language. Again, if the 
translators had not been familiar with the language, it is 
impossible that they could have escaped grammatical slips 
such as using an imperfect for an aorist. Finally, the pe- 
culiar forms and usages which are found are easily explained 
by a reference to modern Greek and other unclassical Greek 
writers. For example, TndCco is not peculiar to Doric, but 
occurs in the Revelation of St. John, and is common in 
modern Greek. 'EdoXiovo-av is an imperfect from boXioat 
(3rd person plural), and is explained by the consonantal 
form iXeyoaav, a Septuagint form, &c., and further illustrated 
by the modern Greek forms edoXiovo-a, enfiovo-a, of which the 
3rd person plural is respectively edoXiovo-av and hi^ovcrav. 
We may say if we like that such a form as i^okLova-av or eXe- 
yocrav for eXeyoz/ follows the conjugation in iiL, but we must 
not forget that there was originally no other conjugation, 
and that the a- in the 3rd person of e^oXiovo-av is, etymolo- 
gically speaking, just as much in its right place as in ibiboaav^ 
laraaav, erlOeaav. What the o" does in this position is indeed 
a mystery, as it has no place in Sanscrit, and as far as I 
know its presence has not been explained. But if it was 
found, as it seems to have been, convenient to insert it for 
phonetic reasons here, we can see that it would be especially 
so if the usage of the language at any period required the 
imperfect to end in a instead of ov. Such a form as edoXLova 
would plainly clamour for a sigma. It is true that a- is in 
Greek more often left out than inserted ; but the tendency 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 77 

to do the one, implies, as a general rule, the tendency to do 
the other. It is a moot point whether 9 and v in such cases 
as €v6v-Sy ovTco-s, aZey, aUv are ephelcystic or etymologic, i.e. 
added when found, or omitted when absent. With aUs might 
be compared in modern Greek tl7tot€s. In such cases the 
force of analogy must be taken into account. Now that a 
was, for the termination of the imperfect, at least as old as 
ov, is just as likely as not. Originally, as we see from 
Sanscrit, the termination of the ist aorist and of the 2nd 
aorist and imperfect were the same. In Homer we have 
§a, €ov, and rja ; in Ionic both er^v and ea for ?v, ' I was.' In 
order to account for the diphthong ov, however, we should 
have to suppose either that v was changed to a after the 
contraction ihoXlovv from edoXloou had taken place, in which 
case the accent in such a word as idoXiovaa would be a 
mystery, or else, as appears to me to have been the fact, 
there was a paragogic vowel slipped in between the o and 
the a. This seems to have been so in the case of rja for 
ea, €r)Vy and ^ev for €€v, and rjijv, which would appear to 
present us with a pair of paragogic e"s (e-c-e-cp). However 
that may be, we have the termination -aa for the imperfect 
of contracted verbs in modern Greek, and of contracted 
verbs only. In the Septuagint we have the termination 
'O-av in the 3rd person plural of many verbs, but as far as 
I know no trace of the o- in any other person. Yet the 
o- has just as much right (pace grammaticorum) to exist in 
any other person as in the 3rd, and it is my belief that in 
inany parts of Greece where in the first person a was the 
favourite termination (etSa for eldov^ (ha for dnov, which we 
have in the Septuagint and New Testament), idokLovaa, efii- 
(rovo-tty &c. would inevitably arise. 

At any rate, it is important to remember that all the Greek 
that was spoken from Homer's day to the era of the Pto- 
lemies is not to be found in books, still less in Grammars, 



78 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

and, above all, that vulgar dialects both of ancient and 
modern times should be expected to contain far more 
archaisms than innovations. 

Let us see whether this principle will carry us further in 
the explanation of modern Greek forms. First then as to 
the nominative do^ais for do^a. How are we to account for 
the i ? Schleicher, in his ' Comparative Grammar/ following 
as I believe in the steps of Bopp, postulates do^a-t~as or some 
such form as the original plural of do^a. It is but right to 
state that Professor Max Miiller differs from this view, but at 
any rate it is remarkable that the modern Greek form sup- 
plies exactly one of the stages of transition that the theory 
of Bopp and Schleicher demands. As to the accusative raTs 
do^ai^, that is the Aeolic form, and as such an acknowledged 
archaism. Tals do^ats is ascertained to be a representative of 
ravs do^avs, the modification of the vowel indicating the loss 
of the V. 

Turning next to the pronouns, we have already observed 
that efjieva and eaeva for efxe and (T€ preserve the original p 
(in Sanscrit m, mdm^ and tvdm) of the accusative. ^E/xely is 
referred to by Plato (Crat. 418 c) as an older form for 
ry/xely. As to the enclitic and proclitic use of the article, 
it is (except for the accent in the latter case) the same 
as the Homeric usage, e.g. t6z^ io-KOTcoae, ^ he killed him ;' 
dTrecrvXrjcre rovs, ' he spoiled them.' Passing to the verbs, we 
find in Keyovp or Xeyovue the traces of the old form Xeyovri 
{exovi is quoted, I believe, by Hesychius as a Cretan form). 
In the passive the forms XiyccraL, 2nd person present, Xeyo- 
/uaore or XeyofieaOa as well as KeyofxeO^v, are SO plainly archaic 
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle 
to the Romans we have already Kavxacrai, * thou boastest/ 
In the imperative aorist active Xe^e for Xk^ov is Homeric. 
As to the imp, aorist passive Xe^ov, I cannot but agree with 
Dr. Mullach that it is the classical middle i aor. imper. of 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 79 

verbs in /xi used as a passive, there being no middle voice 
in modern Greek, as there was none in the kolvt) hak^KTos. 
Few who compare such forms as o-raa-o with the corre- 
sponding modern oradov, be^ov will be able to doubt this. 

The verb elyLai (elfil), so far as it presents us really with 
a middle form, has the precedent of the Homeric eVo, which 
is precisely the modern Greek imperative, not to speak of the 
future €(To^ai. But nearer examination shows us that elfxai is 
not conjugated throughout as a middle. The third person 
singular and plural elvai, or elve, the latter being more correct 
in writing, while in pronunciation the two forms are the 
same, is plainly not for elrat and elprac. Now the formation 
of this word we are able to trace through its various stages. 
The oldest shape in which it appears is eWi, which in the 
Doric dialect was the same for both numbers. This eWi 
appears already in classical Greek as em in such phrases 
as ovK €VL, 'ivLoi for io-TLv ot It Is not unlikely that it was the 
vulgar word in regular use for evrl or eVrl, though known to 
literature only in such short phrases as the above. In the 
Acts of the Council of Constantinople (536 a.d.), we find 
€VL used simply for eVrt, 'Tls evi l<le(rr6pLos.'' In Ptochopro- 
dromus, the first Romaic writer, we get eW, and soon after- 
wards the present form elvai or elve. 

One other principle which seems to have been at work in 
the development of modern from ancient Greek is the prin- 
ciple of extended analogy. From this point of view modern 
Greek may be called the logical result of ancient Greek. In 
ancient Greek the dual number was disappearing ; in modern 
Greek, as already in the kolvt) ^laXeKTos, it is gone. The 
middle voice as a separate formation was on the wane. In 
the New Testament we have aTvcKpiOr] for dncKplvaTo, much 
earlier idexOrj for ede^aro ; in modern Greek the only relic of 
the ancient middle appears in the passive imperative aorist. 
In later Greek we have many instances of a tendency to 



8o ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

dispense with a separate form for the perfect, using the aorist 
instead. In modern Greek the perfect has disappeared, 
leaving perhaps a trace of its former existence in such an 
aorist as evprjKa for €vpr}Ka. Already in the Septuagint we get 

€vprjKav and iuipaKav, for evprjKao-t and ecopaKacru Verbs in fit 

have entirely disappeared in modern Greek, leaving behind 
them only such remnants as the participles Xeyafxevos, ipxd- 
jji€vos above noticed. The termination rjKa in i\€xOr]Ka, iypd- 
(prjKa, &c., seems but a following out of the analogy of edcDKa 
for €d(ov, Wr)Ka for Wrjv, and so forth. Mr. Walker, High 
Master of the Manchester Grammar School, has called my 
attention to the fact that the termination Ka for perfects is 
almost unknown to Homer. 

Under the head of extensions of analogy we may place 
the double or mixed declensions, as to ypa-^Lfiov, ra ypayJAipara, 
with which we may compare t6 ovcipov, ra oveipara, Sec. It is 
worthy of notice that the plural ra ovelpara is the only one 
known to the common people (in Athens at any rate), and 
I have been corrected myself by my landlord in that city, a 
man who barely knew how to read, for saying ra ovetpa. 

Phrynichus, the grammarian, notices the increasing use 
of this termination -ipov, and complains particularly of the 
employment of t6 yeXdo-ifiov for to yeXolov. One cannot but 
be glad that the forms prevailed in spite of Phrynichus, for 
they are a real gain to the Greek language. They consti- 
tute a class of verbal substantives with a shade of meaning 
not accurately expressed by any other word. Certainly 
there is no adequate ancient Greek translation of ukovco 
ap,i^tfjiov o-TraOi^v, ' I hear the clash of mingled swords.' The 
force of the termination -tjnoi/ is that it places the word to 
which it is added midway between concrete and abstract; 
e. g. K6y\n9 would mean cutting, /coV/xa a cut ; but to Ko^ip-ov a 
number of cuttings or stabbings, and is used to describe, as 
no other word could, an internal pain ; German Leibschnei- 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 8 1 

den. In the plural, as well as in the oblique cases of the 
singular, it is rather the concrete side of the meaning which 
comes into prominence. Hence we have the endings appro- 
priate to a concrete meaning — ypayJAlfxaros, ypa-^Lixara. The 
same explanation no doubt holds good with regard to ovetpov, 
which may mean either dreaming in the abstract, or a dream ; 
while ovelpara means always paj'iicular dreams. 

It remains that we should notice the influence of dialects 
in the forms of modern Greek. The Koivr] dtdXeicTos was 
probably so called quite as much from the fact that it was 
no dialect in particular but a mixture of all, as that it was 
generally understood. Pindar's language was called by gram- 
marians KOLVT], because they regarded it as a mixture of more 
than one dialect. 

Now the fact that the Greek of the Septuagint presents us 
with forms belonging to different dialects is one reason for 
the false notion above referred to, that the translators took 
their words at random from the several dialects, much as an 
indiscriminating schoolboy might do in our own day. We 
are apt to forget that the Greek language was just as familiar 
to the Hebrews who wrote the Septuagint, as their own 
tongue. Just as they adopted the language of ' stammer- 
ing lips ' in Babylon, so they spoke Greek under the Ptole- 
mies; and, in all likelihood, both spoke and wrote that 
language with greater ease than their sacred tongue. The 
only natural explanation of the appearance of Doric forms 
like mdCco and rare Homeric words like dyepcoxos in the 
Septuagint, is that they were current in the vernacular of the 
period. Ilta^a) is to this day the modern Greek for 'to 
catch/ and in this sense it is that it is used in the Bible (cf. 
Latin opprimere), while dy^pi^x^s is actually found in the 
Romaic popular ballads collected by Passow. We are con- 
tinually reminded of the existence throughout the history of 
the Greek language (at any rate beginning with the time of 

G 



8;^ ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

Aristophanes), of a common spoken dialect quite distinct 
from the cultivated language of literature, but seldom coming 
to the surface. As often as it strove to raise its head, some 
tyrant grammarian, a Phrynichus, a Dionysius, or a Choe- 
roboscus beat it down, till at last a poor monk, nicknamed 
Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century^ by his example 
liberated Greek for ever from the shackles of the gram- 
marians, and showed that a language has neither power nor 
beauty except it be free. 

Meanwhile, of course, the language of literature, of the 
schools, and of the law-courts was comparatively stationary, 
while that of the people was continually developing and 
changing, as must ever be the case with a living spoken lan- 
guage. No doubt one of the first changes that came over 
the popular dialects was that they became mixed and merged 
in one. Probably it was only a very old Megarian who, even 
in the days of Aristophanes, would be heard in the Athenian 
market-place expressing himself thus, — 

afi^are ttottclv fxdddap al )( evprjre ira. 

Constant intercourse with men from other parts would 
soon soften down dialectic distinctions, especially when all 
political divisions were lost in the Macedonian monarchy. 
Doubdess the Attic dialect, as that of the most cultivated 
portion of the nation, would give the leading tone to the 
KOLVT} diaXeKTo^, but at the same time we should quite expect 
isolated provincialisms to survive. This is actually the case 
not only in the language of the Septuagint, but also in the 
modern language of Greece. The modern Greek, when 
speaking in the vernacular of his country, says jJUKprj with the 
lonians of old, do^as with the Dorians, rais TifMOLs for ras rifxas 
with the Aeolians, eao and ^eO^e for- 1o-6l and (l^ev^op with the 
Epic poets. Yet we may be well assured that the shepherd 
or vine-dresser who speaks in this way is as ignorant of the 



OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 83 

language of Dorians, lonians, or Epic poets, as a South- Sea 
islander. As peculiarly characteristic of the Boeotian variety 
of Doric Greek we may notice the preference of ov for v. So 
too in modern Greek we have kovtoXlov for kvtoXlov from 
kvtolXt], Tpovira for rpvira. Sometimes this ov represents an 77, 

as (Tov(rdfjLL for (rrjcrdfxiov, (rovTnals for orrjTrLai ] compare Kpovvos 
and Kprjvrj, 

With reference to such forms as vodco for voeco, we may 
remind the reader, that, as we have seen above in the chapter 
on pronunciation, aw and eco were originally one. So too 
cXe^ey for eXe^as is Only another instance of the equivalent 
value of short a and e. This again we see in IBeXrepos, /SeX- 
Ticov, from ^eXros, which means that which may be put, placed, 
or thrown; IBeXros standing for ^aXrosy the regular verbal 
adjective of IBdXXco : (for the change of a and e under similar 
circumstances compare-^aXra andTreXr?;?;) for the etymology 

of ^eXrepos &C. Compare (pepraros, (peprepos, from (pepros, i. C. 

what is bearable; hence in the comparative degree more 
bearable or preferable. The forms IBaXros and (pepros are 
common verbal adjectives in modern Greek. 

The paragogic e in such words as iXXoyeo), &c., had a 
tendency to become t; so 6tarafa), the modern Greek and 
most ancient form, as I believe, of Starao-cra), must have 
passed through the following stages : hiarayico = (I am a ha- 

Tayos,) ^LaTayLcOj dLardyjcOy Starafo), dLardacrco, Tayeco is found in 

Aesch. Persae, 764. 

The disappearance of the dative case from the common 
vernacular of Greece belongs rather to the head of Accidence 
than Syntax, as I believe it is mainly attributable to pronun- 
ciation. We have seen already, that in the vulgar dialect 
both CO and ol tend to become ov. This will account for the 
fact that TO) €1776 becomes in modern Greek tov che, and /not 
ehe, fiov cine. Add to this the fact that the Greek idiom, 
especially the later Greek idiom, often places the genitive as 

G 2 



84 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC. 

a kind of gen. commodi, in which position it really stands 
for the dative, as 'EdepaTrevo-ev avTov TTjv Ovyarepa, a mode of 
expression which meets us in almost every page of the New 
Testament,— and the wonder will rather be how the dative 
should so long have maintained its rights, than that it should 
have finally disappeared. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Origin and Development of Modern G-reek 

Syntax. 

Having now, as far as our time and space allow, dis» 
posed of the mere grammatical forms of the modern Greek 
language, let us go on to examine 

The Syntax of Modern Greek. 

Here we have left the region of archaisms and dialectic 
forms, and enter the territory of the history of the human 
mind. To the mere philologer the former part of the 
inquiry may seem the more interesting; for the philosopher 
the succeeding portion will present the greater attraction. 
That we may obtain in the outset a general view of the 
difference in structure and expression, we will compare part 
of the eighth chapter of Plutarch's Life of Caesar, as trans- 
lated by Mr. Rangabes, with the original as written by 
Plutarch. 

H yvay^rj Xolttov avrrj €(pdvrj Ovtco de rrjs yvcofxrjs (piXav- 

(pikavSpcoTTos, KOL lo-xvpos 6 \6yo9 6po)7rov (pav€L(rr]s kol tov \6yov 
ooTis eppedr} nepl avTrjs. At* 6 ^vvarcos eV* avrfj prjSevros ov 



86 



THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 



ov fjLovov ol jLter* avrov iyepdevres 
7Tap€be-)(0VT0 ttjv Trporacriv avrov, 

dWa KOL TToXXot T(OV TTpOOflfXr]- 

(rdvTcov, dpvovfX€voL ras Idlas tcov 
yvcofias, Trapebixovro ti]v ediKrjv 
rovy €cos oTov rfkOev rj crcLpa rov 
Kdrcovos kol tov KarXou. Ovtol 
S' rjvavTLSOrjcrav fJLeO^ opfXTjs, kol 
o)S 6 Kdrcov yLera tov \6yov ep- 
pLyj/€ KOi vTTovoiav Kar^ avrov, 
Ka\ €^av€(Trr] /car' avrov ^ialays, 
ol fjL^v avbp€s jrapeboOriCTav ottcos 
SavarcoOcoo'L' Kara de rov Kat- 
aapos, iv co e^rjpx^ro rrjs jBov- 
XtJs", TToXXot rS)v v€(ov rcov (f)pov- 
povvrcov rov KiKepcova rore, opfxr]- 
o-avreSy eo-rp^yfrav yvfJLvd rd ^L(f)r] 
Kar^ avrov. 'AXXa \eycrai on 
6 KovpL(t)v, TrepLKokvyj/a'^ rore av- 
rov did rrjs rrj^evvov rov, rov 
e^rjyaye' Ka\ 6 KiKcpcov, orav ol 
vioi TTpOG-e^Xe^av els avrov, ore 
evevaev aTrocjyartKcos, (po^rjdels rov 
drjfxov, T] rov (povov oXcos dbiKov 
/cat TrapdvofjLov 6€copS)v. Tovro 
6fJi(os ^€v Tj^evpco TTcos 6 KiKcpcov, 
dv eivaL d\r]6e9, SeV ro eypayj/ev 
els rov rrepl rrjs vnarelas \6yov 
TOV' Karrjyope^ro d^ varepov on 
bev o)(pe\r]dr] rore ck rrjs evKaipias 
7]ns aplarrj Trapovaid^ero els av- 
rov Kard rov Kalo-apos, aXX' edei- 
Xlaaev evcoinov rov drjp^ov, ocrns 
VTreprdrcos rjvvoei rov Kaicrapa, 



fJLovov ol fierd rovrov dvia-rdpLevoi 
TTpocreriSevro, ttoXXoI be kcll roav 
Trpd avrov rds elprjfjLevas yvatfias 
aTreLTrdjjLevoL rrpos rrjv eKeivov fie- 
rearrjaav, ecos cttI 'Kdrcova to 
TTpdyjxa KOL KarXoi/ rrepLrjXOe. 
Tovrcov be veavLKcos evavncoOev- 
T(ov, Kdrcovos be Ka\ rr)v virovoiav 
dfia r(0 \6yoi crvveTTepeiaavros 
avrco KOL (TvyKare^avao-ravTos ep- 
pcofxevcos, ol fxev dvbpes dnoOa- 
vovfievoi napebodrjo-av, KalcapL 
be rrjs jSovXrjs e^iovri ttoWol roav 
KtKepodva (ppovpovvrcov rore vecov 
yvfwd rd ^L(prj crvvbpap^ovres eire- 
(TXpv, 'AXXa Kovpi(ov re Xeyerai 
rfj rrj^evvcp TrepLJBaXcov vTre^aya- 
yelv, avros re 6 KiKepcov, 6)s ol 
veavLO-KOL Trpoae^Xeyj/av, dvavev- 
crai, <j)oP7]6els rov brjpov, rj rov 
(povov oXcos dbiKov KOL napdvofjiov 
rjyovpevos. Tovro pev ovv ovk 
olba oTTcos 6 KiKepcov, e'tnep rjv 
dXrjOes, (V ro) nepl rrjs vrrarelas 
OVK eypa^ev' air lav be el^ev 
vorrepov o)? dpurra rw Katpco rore 
TTapaaxovn Kard rov Kalo-apos 
pr] xpV^^H'^^^^i dXX' dTrobeLXcdo-as 
rov brjpov virepcpvcos Trepiexope- 
vov rov Kaio-apos, 



OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX. 87 

Here the words are all ancient Greek; but there is a 
strange departure from the old simplicity of expression, 
combined with a sort of effort to say a great deal, and a 
certain indescribable insincerity of language which is in itself 
a history. The mere words, the outer shell, are still the 
same as Plutarch himself, or even Thucydides, might in 
certain connections have employed ; but a change has 
passed over the spirit of the whole. It is as though a new 
soul had taken up its abode in an old body, or as if, to take 
a simile from an ancient story of Sacred Writ, the rough, 
out-spoken, stalwart elder brother were being counterfeited 
and supplanted by a wily younger one. ' The hands are 
the hands of Esau, but the voice is the voice of Jacob.' 

We will now proceed to consider the syntax of modern 
Greek somewhat more particularly, and that we may follow 
a definite order we will begin with that part of syntax which 
seems most nearly to enter into the accidence of the lan- 
guage. 

The compound tenses of the verbs may fairly claim our 
first attention. In modern Greek the future is formed in 
three ways. By the particle Sa wdth the subjunctive ; by the 
verb 6e\a) used personally, and followed by the infinitive; 
and, thirdly, by the same verb used impersonally, followed 
by the subjunctive. Thus ypay\r(x) becomes Sa ypdyj/(o, SeXco 

ypdyj/€L{v) for ypd\lrai(?) or 6e\€i (Va) ypd\j/co. Qa ypdyp'co is 

usually regarded as a contraction for SeXet va = Se va = 6a 
ypayco ; but such a contraction would be quite without 
analogy, and I am much disposed to look upon 6a as a mere 
particle, to speculate on the etymology of which would be 
hazardous, though it may be either a part or a fragment of 
raxa, a possible dialectic form of which would be 6a-Ka ; cp. 
klScov and x^'^'^^'j €v6€vr€v, ivT€v6€v. I cannot but think we 
have this very particle 6€ or 6a in the optative interjection 
eiSe and cliSe : eWe e\6oi is in modern Greek ^We va €\6rj, which 



88 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

might be also written el 6e va e\6r^. That 6a is equivalent in 
force to 'iacos, Tcixa, k€, ttcos, ciif, &c., is evident from the fact 
that, in modern Greek, rax eXdrj and to-coy eXdrj may be used 
without Ba. In ancient Greek el-Be eXSot is plainly equivalent 
to eiTTCDs eXSoL. I am the more inclined to regard Sa as a 
simple particle because its use with the subjunctive corre- 
sponds to the use of Ke in Homer, with the same mood, while 
its employment with the imperfect, as Sa eireBvfiovv (vulg. 6a 
eTreBvfjiovcra), answers precisely to the classical eTreOvjjLovv civ; 
only that this usage is more exact in modern Greek, it being 
impossible to say Sa e7TeSvfxi]aa in the same sense. This 
would mean, not, ^ I should have wished,' but, ' I probably 
did wish/ It is worth consideration whether av with the 
aorist indicative in ancient Greek has not sometimes the 
same meaning. However that may be, with Sa, if it be a 
simple particle, we have nothing at present to do. ea TroXe- 
fjirjcrco is just as much in the spirit of ancient Greek as Ke 

7roXefjLr](TCL>. 

But with SeXco ypd\lreL and SeXet ypayj/co the case is different. 
eeXco ypayj/eL explains itself But what induced the Greeks 
to grow discontented with their simple future ypd\l/co? It 
seems to have been nothing else than a certain wastefulness 
of speech always observable in the Greek language, as in 
such phrases as ervxev iov, fieXXet TToielv (which latter is after all 
but another kind of compound future) ; but this tendency 
to waste words always increases in proportion as solidity 
of character and depth of thought begin to wane. Inanity 
always vents itself in expletives: and it is no wonder that 
we cannot write Cicero's Latin without swearing Cicero's 
oaths. Now every needlessly forcible expression is only 
another kind of expletive ; it fills up a proportionate void in 
the mind of the speaker and the hearer, and may be com- 
pared to a still more feeble resource of m^odern times, the 
printer's trick of italicising. The Nemesis of waste is want ; 



OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX. 89 

and so we find in the present case. GeXco ypay\reL having 
come to mean, ' I shall write ; ' the need arises of a separate 
phrase for ' I will write.' This accordingly is expressed by 
the still more explicit mode of speech OeXod Iva ypdylrcoy BiXco 
Va ypd\j/co. This use of tva begins in the New Testament, 
where it is extremely common. But this leads again to a 
further need ; if tva ypd\j/cd in this and other cases is to be 
equivalent to ypd\(/aL, what are we to do if we want to say 
iva ypd\l/(o in good earnest? We must have recourse to a 
further periphrasis, and say dia 'm (di' tva) ypdyj^co. This 
process is like the career of a perpetually insolvent debtor 
borrowing money at compound interest. The same prin- 
ciple may be seen at work in a vast number of words and 
expressions. To notice a few. The preposition did, through^ 
becomes diafxecrov, dm grOWS into dvdfji€(TOv, iiera is felt to be 
too weak to express the relation with, and accordingly oixahrj 
{'fjLa^T)) is pressed into the ranks of the prepositions. Tls 
becomes ttoTos ; rls, kqtls, Kavels, or KafXTToaos = respectively some 
one, any one, and some, Tcopa (rrj &pa) supplants the simple 
vuv; iras and eKao-ros become Kadels, first, as most frequently 
in the New Testament, used only in the accusative KaS' em, 
but soon regarded and declined as one word, as already in 
the epistles of St. Paul : 6^ and oan^ become 6 ottoIos (cp. z'l 
quale, el cual, le quel, in Italian, Spanish, French, as also 
TToToy with quel, &c.). For the old ttoTo? the Greeks often say 
TToTos rts-, and the common people rt \oyr\^ ; (the r'l being used 
indeclinably, like wasfur in German). Tt \oyr]s must have 
meant originally, ^ of what vintage or gathering V 

Examples of this kind might be multiplied without end ; 
but the limits of our space warn us not to linger too long on 
any one subject, however full of interest. We would rather 
point the way and draw the outlines which we think, with 
Aristotle, ' any one may fill up for himself.' 

The third or impersonal form of the future, ^eXei ypdyj/co, we 



90 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC, 

prefer to consider a little later on when we come to examine 
the influence of Greek systems of thought upon the develop- 
ment of the language. We will say now a very few words 
on the compound perfects. Of these there are two, e^o) (ye) 
ypajjLfievov, which is simply a more explicit way of saying 
y€ypa(pa, and will be quite familiar to the classical scholar, 
and exco ypa\lreL from €x^ ypayj/at, which is difficult to explain, 
rather from the want of illustration and analogy in ancient 
Greek or other languages, than from any inherent unreason- 
ableness in the thing itself : yet we may compare the use of 
the German infinitive for the participle in phrases like tck 
hahe ihn sprechen wollen, Sec, Perhaps the idea present to 
the minds of those who first used it may have been, that as 
TO ypd(p€Lv, and even if the case required it t6 ypd\j/at, might 
mean ^ the writing,' so ex&) ypd\j/ac might be used for ^ I have 
a writing/ of anything as a deed done, ycypap^p^epov poi icm. 
At any rate, he who is not scandalized at iKoav etvai need not 
be offended at exco ypd-^ai. 

It might be worth some one's while to see whether in 

certain cases ovk exco ypdyJAm, ovK. e^co elire^Vy ovK e^^^ cLTTode'l^aty 

and the like, may not admit of a perfect sense, as used by 
Herodotus and other classical authors. With reference to 
both the future and perfect tenses in modern Greek, it is to 
be observed that being duplicate, according as the infinitive 
aorist or imperfect is employed, they give a greater precision 
of meaning than the simple forms ypdyj/^co or yeypacjya are 
capable of expressing. Tpdyj/o) in ancient Greek might mean 
either ^ I v^/ill write' (e. g. a letter), or, ^I will be an author.' 
In the one case it would be in modern Greek, Oa ypdyJAco, 

OeXco ypdyj/€L, or SeXei ypd-^ro) ; in the Other, 6a ypddxOy OeXoi 
ypd(p€i, or OeXei ypd(pco. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
Phraseology. 

Leaving for the present the subject of syntax, let us notice 
some changes in the meaning of words. 

In the language of Greece as it is in our ovm day, we 
shall be surprised and interested to find the eminently Greek 
tendency to euphemism carried out to a still further extent 
than in ancient Greek. KvOivrr]^ means no longer ^murderer' 
but ' master.' Possibly during the period of Turkish supre- 
macy the Greeks thought it came to much the same thing. 
This I have put under the head of euphemisms, though it 
appears to be a kind of inversion of the euphemistic ten- 
dency, inasmuch as a bad meaning has given place to a 
better one. But in all probability it is a real euphemism. 
AvSevTTjs in the sense of murderer probably stands as a 
separate idiom from avdhrrjs, master. AvOivrrj^, meaning 
according to its derivation 'the very doer,' was employed 
to denote the doer of a particular crime. This etymological 
sense ' real doer ' was most likely never lost among the 
common people, and when, as especially under the Turkish 
dominion, deo-Trorrjs was felt to be an odious term, avBivrr^s 
would be applied to the master, half to soften down the 
bitterness of the relation in the mind of the slave, half 



92 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

flatteringly and fawningly towards the master, as though the 
meaning were ' he is the real doer of all that is done, we 
are nothing but the tools/ A more palpable instance of 
euphemism may be found in such words as o-kotoVo), *I 
darken,' for kill, yj/o(pd€L of an animal dying; compare the 
French crever, and the German crepiren. The meaning is 
literally of course ' to make a noise/ Death is still called 
Xapo)!/ in the popular dialect, Xapo? or XapcDz/ra?, etymolo- 
gically(?) 'the joyful God/ Bao-fcXeuet 6 T^Xtoy means 'the 
sun sets/ Such euphemisms are quite in the spirit of the 
Greek language in all ages. Who does not remember at 
the sound of g-kotovco the grand Homeric periphrasis for 
death, o-kotos oo-o-e KoXvyj/ev? and who that gazes on the 
setting sun, as the Greek shepherd has so often done, from 
some commanding height, but feels the majesty of the great 
Ruler of the skies more sensibly as he lights up with his last 
golden rays, ocean, islands, clouds and mountain tops, and 
owns the fitness of the words put by Campbell into the 
mouth of the ' Last Man' who sees the sun set never to rise 
again : — 

* Yet mourn I not thy parted sway, 
Thou dim discrowned king of day'? 

If there is a difference between the euphemisms of ancient 
and modern Greece, it is perhaps that the modern ones are 
more stereotyped and fixed ; that the language of poetry has 
become the language of life. 

Thus much of the euphemisms in the Greek of our own 
day. There is however many a word which bears the 
impress of a deeper and harder kind of thought than that 
which is content with softening stubborn facts into gentle 
metaphors. 

The biography of a new word and expression would often 
be a page from the history of philosophy. 



OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 93 

The whole language in its vocabulary, as well as in its 
structure, appears to have undergone a change from truth to 
fiction, from Nature to Art. If it be asked, When did this 
change begin ? the answer is, With the beginning of specu- 
lative thought ; an answer perhaps none the less true because 
it is indefinite. 

What has philosophy done for language generally, and 
what for Greek in particular ? might prove no uninstructive 
enquiry. The most comprehensive reply to the question 
would seem to be, that it gave terms for thoughts as well as 
for things. The main feature of a language before the 
beginning of speculative thought, is a kind of honest sim- 
plicity. Men call a spade a spade, not an agricultural 
implement. 

Before philosophy, human research is a mere registration 
of given phenomena. It asks only what is there } Philo- 
sophy asks, why is it there ? then, how is it there 1 and lastly, 
is it there at all .? 

When new questions are asked, new answers must be 
given ; and new answers require new words, or at least 
words with new meanings. 

Even the Ionic philosophers have handed down a host of 
words to the colloquial language of to-day. Such are <i)vo-Ls^ 

apxrj, (TTOLx^lou, i^drfjiLcns, dvaOvfiLaais, dvaXvaLs, Koo-fxos, ciTretpos, 

TTVKvcoo-is, dpalaxTis. Could any of these words write its own 
biography, what a strange history that would be ! Had any 
of them been gifted with the tongue of a prophet, how it 
would have amazed the sages of old ! 

The unlettered Athenian in the Cafe de la Belle Grece, as 
he melts a lump of sugar in a cup of coffee, little dreams 
that the name by which he calls the process (dvdXvo-is) meant, 
in the mouths of the old Ionic philosophers, the dissolution 
of the elements of created things in decay or death ; and 
scarcely could Heraclitus, with all his admiration of anti- 



94 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

pathies, have divined that Koo-fios, the divine order of nature, 
and aireipov, the formless void, should ever be wedded 
together in one expression, koo-^os aneLpos, and mean a 
' countless multitude,' perhaps a disorderly rabble. Could 
Anaxagoras have foreboded that koo-jxos^ which expressed to 
him divine beauty and perfection of arrangement — Travra 

XprjfJLara rjv ofiov, eira vovs iXSchv avra dLeKoo-fxrjae — should in a 

very few hundred years become the subject of the Christian 
lament, ' the whole world lieth in wickedness ' ? Who could 
foresee that t6 aXoyov, which would mean in the mouth 
of Heraclitus so much of matter as was untouched by the 
heavenly fire of reason, should come to signify in our own 
day a horse ; or that cttolx^Iov, an element, should presently 
become a ghost, the dalfjLcov of the ancient Greeks, haunting 
murmuring rills or whispering groves, and terrifying the 
simple shepherd as he tends his flocks upon the lonely 
mountain side ? Scarcely could Democritus and Leucippus 
have guessed, that of their philosophical terms o-xw^, Oeo-is, 
and rd^ts, the first should mean in the present day, ' a monk's 
habit,' the second, * a place in a coach,' and the third, ^ a 
class' in a steam-packet or a railway train, any more than 
Pythagoras could have foreseen that his doctrine of the 
Pilgrimage of Souls should have taken such firm root in 
popular superstition and popular poetry, that those lines of 
Xenophanes, 

Kal TTOT€ fjLLV (TTVCpeXL^ofxevov (TKvXaKos TvapLovra 
^aaiv iTTOLKTCLpaL KOi Tode (pdcrBaL eTTOs' 

Ilavorai, fxrjde pd7ri^\ eTTCir} (plXov dvepos earl 
^^X^ r^i/ eyvcov (pOey^ajjLevrjs aicov' 

should have found their echo in such words as these, uttered 
by the hero Tsamados in the person of a bird of the air :— 

'Eycb TTOvXi (Tov (paluop^ai dWd ttovW dev eip^aC 
Etff TO vrjal ttov dyvavria elvai tcop ^a^apivojv^ 



OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 95 

EaccI Tr]v vcrreprjv ttpoyjv acprjcra iroKcyLcovTas. 
*0 ^Tcrajjiados elfxai eyo) koI rfkBa els top Koafiov. 
'2 Tovs ovpavovs irov KaBopaL KaSdpia eras ^avolyco' 
Ma va aas ^dco aTTO kovto. eivai rj ^TnBvjJLLa fiov. 

To take another instance, how has the common language 
of modern Greece reversed the judgment of the Eleatics, 
when TO ov no longer means the most abstract but the most 

concrete Being, as 6 avOpconos ovtos dvai to dvo-Tvx^o-TaTov ou 

TOV KOafJLOV ! 

Even the Sophists have a claim, and not the least, to our 
attention. If these thinkers, or as some would perhaps be 
inclined to call them, talkers, have little right to the name of 
philosophers, it should still be remembered that they more 
than any philosopher, not excepting Plato, who owed more 
to them than he was -aware, left their mark upon the Greek 
language, a mark which has never since been effaced. Be- 
fore their time men wxre in the habit of saying what they 
thought ; since they have rather inclined to think what they 
should say, a tendency from which even genius cannot now 
wholly shake itself free. Before the Sophists, thought was 
everything and expression as an end nothing ; hence while 
it was often laborious, it was always unstudied. Since their 
age, expression has been too often either everything or 
more than half the whole. Antithesis, emphasis, precision 
of language, nice distinctions, well-balanced sentences and 
smoothly-rounded periods, these are the work of the Sophist 
and the delight of the Rhetorician. We can mark this 
leaven working already in the speeches reported by Thucy- 
dides, not so much as they were but rather as they ought 
to have been spoken: we can trace it in the orations of 
Demosthenes, it is the paramount feature in Isocrates and 
the later orators of Greece, and reaches a kind of climax in 
the discourses of Chrysostom. What a gulf is fixed between 



g6 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

a Chrysostom and a Nestor ! And if we listen to any ser- 
mon or public address in Athens at this day, our ears are 
struck by the same balancing of epithets, the same rounding 
of sentences, which constituted in so great measure the art and 
the power of the early Rhetoricians. Here is a brief extract 
from a funeral oration on Lord Byron : — 

Tt avekTTKTTOv (TVfi^ePijKos ! Tt d^LoSprjvrjTov bvarvx'^y^o. \ oklyos 
KaLp09 eluat, dcj} ov 6 Xaos rod TroXvTraSovs 'EWddos oXos X^P^ ^"' 
dyaXKlaaLS ide^Or] els tovs koXttovs tov tov iTrio-qyiOV tovtov av^pa, 
Koi drjjjLepov oXos SXlyj/is kol KaTrj(f)€ia Kara^pi^^i to veKpiKov tov 
Kpej^lBdri fxe TTiKpoTaTa daKpya^ kol odvpeTai d7rapr]y6pT]Ta. 6 yXvKv- 
Taros ;)(atp€rtcr/xos XPI2T02 'ANE2TH eyecvei/ a)(apLS ttjp rjpspav tov 

UdaxcL els to. x^^^ "^^^ ''E\\r}V(ov ;j^pto-7£ai/a)i/, AeKTa ^e^aia, 

dyairrjTOL fiov "EXXrives, ttoXv deKTO, elvai els ttjv aKidv tov tcl baKpvd 
fxas dtoTt elvai baKpva tcov kXt] povo hcov ttjs dyaTrrjs tov' dXXd ttoXv 
deKTGTepa SeXei rjuai to. epya jxas 6ta ttjv naTpida' avTr]v kol p^ovrjv 
TTjv €vyv(x>iJioo-vvrjv ^r^ret drro rjjJLcis els Tas evepyecrias tov, avTrjv ttjp 
dfxoilBrjv els ttjv Trpos rjjjids dydnrjv tov, avTVjv ttjv iXd<ppco(np els Tas 
TaXaiTTcoptas tov, avT^v ttjv TrXrjpcofjiTjv dia tov x^H'^^ '"^^ TToXvTLfJLOv 

^COTJS TOV, 

For the purpose of Sophists and Rhetoricians, which was 
^ not to convince but to persuade,' new words were needed. 
Such words, for example, as tS ovtl — indeed, literally in 
being, in the world of real existence (no bad comment on 
the consistency of a school whose leading axiom was that 
there was no such thing as Truth) — TovXdxio-Tov, kut dXr]6ei,av, 
drjXa^, rjyovv, are the true children of the Sophists and 
have survived to this day ; in fact, without them it would be 
impossible to carry on a connected conversation, or pen an 
article for a newspaper. On the other hand, the simpler and 
less explicit particles, such as ixr]v, ye, ovv, toI, ydp, have in 
modern Greek either received a restricted sense, and thus 



OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY. 97 

been made as explicit as was required, or have been sup- 
planted by others. So yap and ovv, which are very expres- 
sive but not at all explicit, have been entirely displaced by 
diOTL and \oltt6v, which are very explicit but not at all ex- 
pressive. As the first stage of the displacement of yap by 
bioTL and ovv by \0n76v, we may observe the frequent use of 
OTL for yap in the New Testament, which is I believe much 
more frequent than is the case in the Septuagint, and the 
constant occurrence of Xonrov for ovv in Polybius, wherever 
rather an emphatic ovv is required. 

To Socrates may perhaps be traced, or at any rate with 
his teaching may be closely connected, the modern meaning 
of such words as KaSoKov, dioAov, 6\cos (often emphatically 
joined for the sake of greater force — okcos KadoXov, 6\cos dto- 

\ov), dp€Tr], elpcopeia, tjOlkos, iTnarrjfxr], dtopicrpos. 

The Cyrenaics appear to have invented the word fxepiKos, 
particular (as in the phrase fxeptKal r]bom\), which in modern 
Greek survives in the sense of certain, some, having degene- 
rated from a philosophical term to a mere part of grammar. 
So true is the remark above quoted that the metaphysics of 
one age will become the logic and finally the grammar of 
succeeding generations. A like fate has befallen some terms 
of the Platonic philosophy; as eldiKos from cldos, specific, 
which is now nothing more than part of the possessive 
pronoun 6 dhiK.6^ /xov, to dhiKov TTjs, &c., mine, hers, and so on. 
A curious and interesting instance of a som.ewhat compli- 
cated metaphysical significance in certain grammatical forms 
is presented by the history of the pronoun avTos, This word 
expressed originally what may be called the feeling of sub- 
jectivity rather than the idea : for the subject as an idea had 
as yet no existence. Nevertheless the subject appeared in 
the world very often in an objective light, and in Homer this 
is expressed by putting together the objective particle I with 
the subjective avro^ in the oblique cases, as I avrov, ol avr^, eo 

H 



98 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 

avTov, but it had never yet occurred to the Greeks actually to 
join the two together as subject-object. This by a kind of 
anticipation of philosophy occurs first in the more thoughtful 
age of Attic and Ionic literature, where we get iavrov. But 
both in the Homeric and Attic age there was as yet nothing 
but a kind of unconscious registration of metaphysical facts. 
The subject never till the time of the Sophists, and probably 
not until long afterwards, got so clear of itself that it could 
be spoken of as an objective reality, as a thing. Yet such 
must have been the case to a great extent before the modern 
Greek substitute for iavrov, ifxavTov, Sec. could arise; before 
men could say t6v iavrou fxov, t6v iavrov rov, &c. There may 
come a time perhaps when this tendency to objectivity in the 
subject may go farther still, and men will find no difliculty 
in contemplating the subject as an object, not only in its 
objective relations (as in the oblique cases), but even in its 
most subjective state, as the nominative. In this respect, 
the English language is ahead of the Greek, for we can say 
* himself in the nominative, though we almost require a 
^ he ' to help it out ; whereas 6 iavros rov in Greek would be 
a barbarism ; — 6 Uws being used in such cases instead of the 

classical avros. 

In passing from Socrates and the Cyrenaics to Plato, we 
must not forget the Cynics, who have left their stamp on the 

language in such words as avTapKrjs, avrapKeia. 

If the Sophists gave a new direction to language, to Plato 
belongs the credit of having not inconsiderably increased its 
power of utterance. In truth the Sophists and Plato to- 
gether seem in great measure to have conquered the diffi- 
culties of expression, and by so doing to have given to 
Greek one of the characteristics of a modern language. As 
a mere matter of style Plato comes nearer to a modern 
Greek writer than Polybius, or any Hellenistic or eccle- 
siastical writer. We seldom reflect what labour and art were 



OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 99 

once employed in beating out those convenient expressions, 
those ways of turning a sentence, which make the flow of a 
modern language so easy and its sense so clear and precise. 
Here indeed other men have laboured and we have entered 
into their labours. 

Besides words to which the Platonic philosophy gave a 
new sense, as drjfXLovpyos, * creator,' with all its derivatives, 
one is struck by the fact that many of his commonest 
phrases and words have established themselves in the col- 
loquial language of the present day. 

TLpos TOVTOLSj OTTcos drj7roT€, lacos, (f)aLV€Tac, iravTaiTacTLV^ apd ye, 

fiakicTTa, Tolyap, common and necessary helps to conversation 
in modern Greek, are the very hinges of the Platonic dia- 
logues, and when one hears a common peasant say p^aXio-Ta 
for _yes, or ncos ^iv elda = TTOds ovK cidov ; in emphatic affirma-^ 
tion, one cannot but^i^ struck by such modernisms of Plato, 
or if the reader will, such Platonisms in modern Greek. 

But while modern Greek is indebted largely to Plato for 
its form, to Aristotle it owes much of its vocabulary. If we 
would understand how such words as vXv, vTroKelpievov, wapd- 

Sety/xa, v7rdp)(^€LV, npoTacTLs, ope^i?, ovcncodrjs, ev^ex^raij xoprjye'iv 

came to have their present meaning, it is almost necessary 
to go to Aristotle for the explanation. And yet how 
Aristotle himself would wonder at their modern employ- 
ment. Tpa<pLKrj vXrj, 'writing materials;' ovcnoidrjf dcacj^opa 

vnapxei, * an essential difference exists;' aol evxofjLca KaXrjv 
ope^Lv, ' I wish you a good appetite ; ' afxeo-os Tvporaats^ ' an 

immediate proposal ; ' VTroKelfxevov dTrapabeLyfiaTLO-Tov ivepyelasj 

* a subject of unexampled activity.' He would either think 
that every fool was his disciple, or that all his disciples were 
fools. 

The Stoics were not much of independent speculators, 
but perhaps there is one idiom in modern Greek which may 
be an echo of Stoic resignation, namely ^he third form of the 

H 2 



lOO THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC. 

compound future already noticed, SeKcL v dnoOdvo) for otto- 
SavovfjLaL, as though it were, ' It wills that I should die,' that 
is, it is the will of that great unknown impersonal necessity, 
whom we sometimes worship with the name of God. 

As regards the philosophers, the history of innovations 
may almost be said to close with Aristotle and the Stoics. 

Succeeding schools having lost the grain, continued to 
thrash out the straw of Aristotle or of Plato, until words 
had little meaning left, and men had little hope of anything 
better. 

Yet in spite of the deadness of philosophers, and the 
active opposition of grammarians and pedants, the Greek 
language did not stand still. The conquests of Alexander 
and the consolidation of Greece gave rise to what was called 

the KOLvrj dioKeKTOs^ 



CHAPTER VIL 

The Historical Development of Modern from 
Ancient Greek. 

Hitherto we have sketched the outlines of what may be 
called the basis of modern Greek, of which the principal 
elements seem to have been first as regards its accidence, 
archaisms, preserved in the vulgar dialect from generation 
to generation, a tendency to simplification or regularity both 
in declension and conjugation, and the mixture of dialects 
previously distinct; secondly, as regards its syntax, and the 
use and meaning of words, a change in the mode of thought 
and expression. 

Having now considered the origin of modern Greek, let 
us proceed briefly to trace its development, beginning with 
the so-called Hellenistic Greek. 

To the first or Macedonian age of the Koivrj diak^KTos be- 
longs the Greek of the Septuagint, though there is every 
reason to believe that this translation was made at various 
times, and by persons very variously qualified to fulfil their 
task. And here I may be allowed to remark, how very im- 
portant is a knowledge of modern Greek for the study of the 
Septuagint ; and I need not add of the New Testament also. 
So much the more in the latter case as we have there to deal 
with the meaning of an original instead of only with a trans- 



I02 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

lation. It is a mistake to think that classical Greek -f Hebrew 
will give us the Greek of the Septuagint. 

It is very easy to explain everything as a Hebraism, and 
the less our knowledge of Hebrew the more readily does 
the explanation suggest itself. Now there are Hebraisms in 
the Septuagint, and, though in a less degree, in the New 
Testament ; but all unusual phrases are not Hebraisms. 
Polybius, certainly a contemporary of many of the trans- 
lators of the Septuagint, may have many Latinisms in his 
writings, but all his peculiarities are not Latinisms. What- 
ever light may be thrown on the Septuagint and on Polybius 
by Hebrew and by Latin, infinitely more may be gained both 
for the one and the other from a study of modern Greek. 
And what perhaps sounds still stranger, the Greek of the 
present day affords a better commentary on the language of 
Polybius, of the Septuagint, and of the New Testament, than 
either the writings of contemporary historians, rhetoricians, 
grammarians, and philosophers, who for the most part wrote 
a purely artificial Greek — or than from the many thousand 
ponderous tomes which encumber the threshold of verbal 
criticism. 

To speak first of the Septuagint. We have already 
shown how the grammatical peculiarities of its authors 
are the first appearance of the same forms which are 
familiar to us in modern Greek. But more than this, 
the phraseology of the Septuagint is modern to an extent 
which is quite marvellous, when compared with that of 
contemporary writers, and only explicable by the assump- 
tion that the writers are using the common vernacular, which 
had already become in its spirit and essence much what 
modern Greek now is. For example, ''Ef eX^e iK rrjs yrj9 o-ovy 

Koi €K rrjS o-vyyeveias crov . . .ttclvtcs e^eKkivav, ajxa r)Xp€ico6rj(rav,,., 

Td(l>os dv€(oyfjLevos 6 Xdpvy^ avrcov, sound just like modern Greek 
familiar phrases. Let us mention a few well-known words. 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. [O3 

common to the Septuagint and modern Greek. "Emo-KeTr- 
TOfiacj'l visit;' dnoKpLvofiai (passive), ^I answer;' iTno-rpecl^Q), 
' I return ; ' rjyovp,€vos, ^ a leader ' (in modern Greek the supe- 
rior of a monastery) ; irpoG-Kvvw, ' to worship ' or ^ salute ; ' 
€Toifid^(D, ^ make ready;' ivo^mov, ^in the presence of;' irpoar- 
KOTTTco and TTpoa-Kopixaj TTeLpoL^coj ' to tcmpt ; ' cLKoXovSoi) iu prcfcr- 
ence to enop^ai ; Kotix(op.at in preference to evdco ; 6Xos for Trds ; 
€Q)s €p6s, ^ as many as one ; ' KaroiKM, for ' to dwell ; ' KaOi^opiai 
and KaSlCco, for *to sit;' ra IfxaTLa, for 'the clothes;' vnayco for 
elfii. Besides words of this kind, there are others, the pre- 
sent usage of which dates from the Septuagint, words to 
which Jewish ideas have given a new and higher meaning. 

Ovpavos is no longer the mere blue sky, or a mythical 
name for one of many deities, but the habitation of the 
Ancient of Days. 'Afxapria no longer a mistake, but the 
fundamental error oLmankind, estrangement from God, and 
the breaking of his perfect law. Ulcttls becomes the trusting 
obedience of faithful Abraham, and of all the saints. Ao|a is 
the glory, or sometimes the honour of the Almighty. 'O Kvpios 
is no longer the man in authority, but the name of the Lord 
of lords, and the King of kings. 

Before going on to the New Testament the order of time 
demands a few words for Polybius. It cannot be said that 
the general run of his sentences is so modern as the Septua- 
gint or the New Testament. Many of the novelties of this 
author are equally found in the New Testament. For ex- 
ample, he uses TrXrjv for akXd, orav and av for ore and ^l. 
Other modern usages are dKpr]v for eVt, as already Theocritus, 
iv. 60. Cf. Anthologia, P. vii. 141. "ihov frequently for 
iavTov^ far more so than is the case in classical authors. 
"ibiov in one place in the sense of same, the most usual 
meaning in modern Greek : Ihov koI TrapanXrjcnov toIs rroXeai 
(Tvpe^T]. Here, however, the translation is doubtful. 'Atto in 
the sense of worth or weight, as drro deKa raXdvTiDv, weighing 



I04 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

lo talents. So the Greeks of to-day say bos /xot airo SeKa 

XeTTTci, dno jila deKapa. Ety rovs KaB^ rjfjias Katpovs, which is com- 
pletely modern Greek, for eV roh Kaff rjpas xP^^^^^- This use 
of els, as well as of Kaipos, belongs equally to the New Testa- 
ment. I will now add one or two examples of the modern 

phraseology of Polybius. 'O tPjs TrpaypLaTiKrjs laTopias rponos I 
i. e. the method of actual history. UpayfxaTtKcds dievorjOrjaav, 

ii. 50. 5. AiKaioboala, jurisdiction, XX. 6. 2; xxxii. 17. ig. 
Tpa>yofX€v for io-Slopievj uscd, howcver, only in a proverbial 

expression. Aolttov avdyK-q avyxcopelv ras apxcis Koi ras vTTodeo-eis 
elvai ^evbelsj i. 1 5- E19 d\r}6ivas ivvoias ayeiv. '2v!i(b(i)VQvvT€s, lU. 

the sense of bargaining, already used in this sense by 
Xenophon, Hell. i. 3. 8, Kara tcis irepirrTa^us, according to 

circumstances, Kara ras avrQ)v T^poatpiaeis, 'AvrlcTTracrfJLa, a 
diversion, xi. 18, 'E/c rov (tip i^exooprjo-ap dio. rov xpdi^ov. Id. 
2 2, 17 yap Xe^is avrrj rovro a7]fJLaLV€L Kvplcos, 'Els (pG(3ovs avvexf^'is 

Kol rapaxas, into Continual fear and distress. 

In the New Testament, among many others, we may 
notice the following modernisms : — Els for eV, as els tov koXttov 
rov 7raTp6<s, St. John i. 18. ^'iva with the subjunctive is used 
continually for the infinitive, as Matthew iv. 3, elne Iva ol XIOoi 

OVTOL cipTOi yevcovraL. "Kva peaov, for among : a(f)€S eKJSdXo}, the 
modern as eV/3aXco. Bpexei for veij Matth. v. 45. '''Evoxos els 
TTjv yeevvav for tt] yeevvr]. 'ETraz^o) opovs. UepiaaoTepov for TrXeov^ 

as TTepiaa-QTepov Kpljxa^ ' greater damnation.* d^va-Kokods for jioyis 
or xct^^^^s", ' with difficulty,' Luke xviii. 24, Kvros for os or 
ovros passim. 'Eo-Tadrjv for €(TTr]v passim. The genitive for 
the dative as in modern Greek, o^ eyo) ovk diiai a^ws Iva Xvo-ay 
ai'Tov rov Ipdvra rov vTTodrjiJ.aTos. ^idov for ^ here,' the modern 

edoo : Acts ii. 7? ^'^^ ^^^^ Trdvr^s ovroi elaiv ol \akovvT€s VaXiKaloi] 

EvxapKTTcx) for x«pi^ eldevat, Cf. Lob. in Phryn. on the w^ord. 
Ka6e\s for eKaaros in Rom.ans xii. 5. Such forms as yefil^co, 
' to fill,' eyyl^co, ' to approach,' are mostly Hellenistic and 
modern. 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. 105 

In Romans the phrase t<ov ttjv aX-fjOeLav Iv d^iKia Karexovroiv 

receives considerable light when it is known that Karexco in 
many dialects of modern Greek is used for the more general 
T]^€vp(D, ' I know/ formed from the aorist of i^evpio-Kco, rj^cvpov. 
Many another phrase, which to the mere classical scholar 
appears dark and strange, and in which critics of the school 
of Bengel think they hear the unearthly utterances of an 
oracle, would appear simple and natural to one versed in 
the vernacular of the modern Greeks. In leaving the New 
Testament we may remark finally how many words there 
are to which it has given a peculiar micaning which has now 
become the prevalent one, as dtdlBoXos, KoXacrt?, SXlyj/is, fieravoeco, 
alo)VL09. Above all is it interesting to observe how the bibHcal 
word dyaTrr} has replaced the old expression epws-. The word is 
Hellenistic, and hardly occurs, I believe, in classical Greek, 
although the verb dyair^ does. Now the verb dyaTrcb implies 
the noun dydTrrj, which must therefore have existed in the 
mouth of the common people long before it came to the 
surface in the Greek Bible. 'AyaTrrj being derived from the 
root dyav-, as in dyafos, &;c., is a far better word for Christian 
purposes than epcos, and indeed it would have served even 
Plato better in his more religious moments. Compare the 
Platonic epcos with the Pauline dydnr] in i Cor. xiii., and 
observe how this * love ' is with Paul, as the €p<os with Plato, 
not only the religious sentiment, but more generally still, a 
certain upward and outward longing of the soul, a divine 
principle of development, which is at once the only eternal 
element in, as it is the common substratum of all belief and 
all knowledge ahke, mounting ever upward, according to 
St. Paul, from that which is in part to that which is perfect, 
as in Plato, from beautiful sounds to beautiful forms, from 
beautiful forms to beautiful thoughts, from beautiful thoughts 
to that idea of good which mortal eye of man never but in 
part beheld. 



lo6 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

With Polybius and the New Testament we pass within 
the Roman period. If any one desires to form an idea as 
to the state of the spoken language about i8o years after 
Christ, no book will be more useful than Lobeck's edition 
of Phrynichus' ^ Eclogae' and Epitome. It is really astonish- 
ing to see how nearly every un-Attic form, against which 
Phrynichus protests, has established itself in the language 
of our own day. One may instance such forms as ^ayas 

and (f>aKas, vrjpoVj nOW vepop, for vdcDp, (pXcvdiov for (Photos, Kpv^co 

for KpvTTTcoj cLTTo fiQKpodev^ a commou New Testament and 

modern pleonasm, XtSdpiou^ o-raOepos, ^ao-LkLO-aa^ yeXdo-Lfiov, 

^ayvcpiov (and similar derivatives), ^eviTevav^ Kopdo-cov, evxapio-TO), 

po'Cbiov for polbiov. 

Passing on to the age of Diocletian let us stop for a few 
moments to read a Nubian inscription by a king Silco, 
Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, which may serve as a type of the 
Greek spoken at that time in Aethiopia :— 

'Eyo) SiXkco ^aaLktcTKos "Nov^adcov kol oXcov tcdv AWlottcov rjKSov 
els TeXfJLLv kol Td(piv, liira^ bvo €7ToXepr]a-a p,€Td twv BXep^p.vcov^ kol 6 
deos €da)K€P fxot to VLKrjpa p^erci rcov i)(6p(ov aTra^, evLKrjcra ttoXlv kol 
iKparrjcra rds TToXets avTcoVy eKaBea^rjv p^erci tcov oxXcov fxov' to p.iv 
TTpcoTov aira^ eviKijo-a avToyv kol avTol rj^Lco(rdv fxe, iiroliqG'a elprjvqv 

/X€t' aVTCOP KOL COpOCTCW jXOi TCI (tdcoXa aVTCOVf Kol ilTL(TT€V(Ta TOP OpKOV 

avTOdv hs KoXoL elfTLV avSpcoTTOC dvaxcoprjdrjv els tol avco peprj p,ov, 
ore iyeyovopTjv ^acriXlo-KOs ovk aTrrjXBov oXcos OTTLdOd tcov aXXcov ^a(TL' 
Xecov dXXd aKprjV epTTpoadev avTcov. ol yap (piXoveLKOvcnv p€T e/xoO 

OVK dcl)co (cf. dipecovTat in Ncw Testament) avTovs fls x^P^^ "^- 

Tcov el fjLT) Karrj^LCi>a-di> p€ kol TrapaKaXovcnv KaSeaBrjvm, 'Eya> yap els 
Kara) peprj Xecov elpl Kal els avoi peprj at^ elpl, eTroXefjirjcra p^crd twv 
BXeppLvcov Kal UplfjiecDS eoos TeX[/u]6cos ep drra^ Kal ol aXXoL ^ov^adcop 
dv(j3T€p(o €7r6p6r}aa x^p^s avTcop^ eneibr} e<pLXop€LKr]arap p,€T ipov. ovk 
d(po) avTuvs K(iBecrOr}Pai els ttjp (tklclp elp^rj vTroKXlpovcn [xoi Kal ovk 
eTTcoKap PTjpop eVo) els ttjp olKiap avTcop. ol yap (piXopeiKovai fxoL 
dpnd^co Toyp yvpaiKcop Kal to. Traibla avToop. For wildneSS of 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. 107 

grammar this inscription is not equalled even by the Re- 
velation of St. John, while for childishness of expression it 
stands unrivalled. The chief modernisms are okoav for rrdv- 
Tcov, enoXefiTjaa fxera as passim in the Revelation, and inoLrjo-a 

elprjvqu iJL€T avTcov, d(j)a) for dc^irjyn, €7T(0Kav, a hybrid aorist- 

perfect like evprjKav and edypaKav in the Septuagint, evprjKa and 
efirjKa in modern Greek, and eW eh for eV, in modern Greek 

fxecra els. 

Other Nubian inscriptions give, as in Romaic, such 
forms as '1ov\ls for 'lovXtos, with genitive touXt, tov as enclitic 
for avTov, besides every possible extravagance in grammar 
and every conceivable error in spelling, the latter class of 
mistakes, however, invariably pointing to the identity of the 
pronunciation of that age with that of the present day; as 

^XKvcre for elXKVO-e, reKvvs for T€Kvols, 'Ucoo-i for e'cKcocn, apx^cos for 
apxaiois, clepeos for Upeos^ 

From the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine Period is but 
a step, and the history of the development of modern Greek 
from that time is shortly told. Until the time of Ptochopro- 
dromus, in the eleventh century after Christ, artificial Attic 
was still the language of literature ; but the popular dialect, 
often referred to by authors, keeps coming from time to time 
to the surface ; especially in such works as the ' Gospel of 
Nicodemus' (end of fourth century), the ' Apophthegmata 
Patrum,' *Acts of the Council of Constantinople,' 536, 
'Theophilus Antecessor and Joannes Moschus,' 620, Jus- 
tinian's ' Constitutiones Novellae/ 565. In the ' Gospel of 
Nicodemus' and in Justinian we have a number of Latin 
words, not many of which, however, have survived. One of 
them, however, dpfiara for arma, is a curious instance of 
Greek ingenuity in disguising barbarisms ; for an ' armed 
man' is in modern Greek dpfiaTcoXos = oTrXtV?;?, on the analogy 
of dfxaprcoXos. See Sophocles' * Glossary of Later and Byzan- 
tine Greek,' p. 59 of the Introduction. 



IC8 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

The chief modernisms of this period are 6 d^^as, rod df^jBa, 
pi. ol dlBjBddes, KOTrddtv for KOTrdbiov, the modern KOTrdhi (a piece); 
TToXXa ra err)^ as a form of salutation ; afjLJBcov for ^jjfia, €vi for 
60-rt : and the combination rf, as rCovfids, T^ayydpia, At the 
beginning of a word this is found only in barbarisms ; but 
in all probability the combination existed in certain words 
even in classical times, as a necessary intermediate stage 
between the old Attic double or as in K6a(rv(pos, and the later 
Attic TT as in k6ttv(J)09. It is interesting to know that the 
vulgar Greek of the present day gives us K6Tav(j)os, or K6T^vcf)os, 
sometimes pronounced almost K6c/ivcf}os. 

I subjoin a short specimen of the popular style adopted in 
this period from the ' Apophthegmata Patrum : ' — 

^HA^oV 7T0T€ 7TaT€p€S els ^ A\e^dvbp€LaV KKvfieVT€S VTTO Q€o(p[Kov TOV 

dp^icTTia-KOTTOv Iva 7roLr](T7) cv^^jv kol KaOeKj] ra Upd. Kal icrSiovroop 
avTcov nap" avrov TrapsTeSrj Kpeas pLOCTxiov. Kai rjcrOiov p.7]bev diaKpL- 

v6}l£V0l KCLL \aj3u)V 6 i7rl(TKOTrOS €V KOTrd^LV ^^dcOK€ TCa 7rXr}(TL0V aVTOV 

yepovTL Xeycov, ^Idov tovto koXov Korrdbiu icFTiv, (pdye a/3/3a. Ol de 
aTTOKpLdevres elnov, ^HfieTs ecos apri Xd^ava rjO-OlofUP el de Kpeas icrri 
ov TpcoyojX€v. Kai ovk€tl npoaedero ovde els e^ avToav yevcraaOai 

avTov. A Strange improvement on the ApostoHc precept, 
'ask no questions, for conscience' sake/ The meanness of 
the language is in striking harmony with the moral degrada- 
tion of a religion of meats and drinks usurping the name of 
Christianity. 

The next period in the history of the Greek language may 
be reckoned from 622, the date of the Hegira, to 1099. We 
have here before our eyes the transition in literature from 
the language of the grammarians to the language of the 
people. 

Theophanes (758-806) gives us -ddes as the plural of 

nouns in -as,'^As Xahrjo-coixev for XaXrjo-cofxev, and as elo-eXOcocn for 

slcreXSovTcov, The perfect participle without reduplication, as 
crLdrjpcoiJLevos, KacFTeXXoojievos, TrvpTToXrjjjievos \ diro with the acCU- 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. IC9 

sative, <tvv with the genitive, as well as dixa with gen. Malalas^ 
whose age cannot be determined with certainty, gives us in 
addition -es for -at, as Hepo-es for lit-pcrai, rats nXaKais, meta- 
plastic from T) TrXa^, as though it were rj irXaKa; Kav in its 
modern Greek usage, olai Kav rjo-av, * whatsoever they were 
like/ Mera with the accusative in the sense of wz/k, as the 
mutilated modern fie (?). The nameless biographer of Leo 
Armenius uses the ending -ovp for -ovo-l ; €k with the 
accusative, and evyevos for evyevrjs. Leo the Philosopher, 
886-91 1, has IBlkos =proprzu7n, as in Romaic, and the ending 
-eo-ai for -€L (second pers. sing, passive). Constantine Por- 
phyrogenitus, who wrote all his works, with the exception 
of the Life of St. Basil, in a style purposely popular, gives 
us dXXd^LjjLou, g^^' okXa^LfxaTos I cf. the form TO yekdaiixov, con- 
demned by Phrynichus : fxovoyevr) for the vocative of fiovo- 
yevrjs; the ending -t/coy, ^roparoxytone (possibly a Latinism) ; 
(Tcis for vfjLoop, T(ov for avTcoVy €va for eV, etVe for et : etcre is prob- 
ably from i(T(T\ just as elve is from ivrl : o-ov for croi, as koXt] 
o-ov TjfjLepa, 'good moming to you:' va for iva, and ecos with 
the accusative. 

An anonymous writer, known as Theophanes Con- 
tinuatus, gives us ^A\v gen. of 'kXvs, xp^^^^ for xP^^-oOs : 
Cedrenus, a.d. 1057, the numeral adverb eTTTai for iTrrdKLs, 
This would appear to be a reHc of an old instrumental 
ending. Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the 

common dialect, €a> o-e cKno-a (povpvey €co Iva ai xa^ao^o) = in 

modern Greek iyd) o-e etcTio-a <povpv€, eyw o-e vd (sometimes 
used for 6a) ere xaXao-w- *Ea) occurs in modern Greek as a 
dialectic form, as well as ico, Iwv. Cf. Boeotian lo)v, Icovya, 
Anna Comnena, who wrote a history of the Byzantine war 
about the year iioo, gives another example in the following 
verse : — 

To ad^^aTOV rrjs Tvpii/rjs, 
Xapfjs 'AXe^te^ ivorjcres to^ 



no THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

Kat Tr]V devT€pav to Trpcoi 
EtTTf, KaXcos y^pcLKiv fjLOV. 

Here we have t6 o-a^Parov for rw o-ajB^dTcp, iporjo-es for 
€p6T](Tas, the enclitic to, x^pfl^ for x^P^^^^ used optatively, ttiv 
d€VT€pav for TTj devTepa, KaXa)s as a form of Salutation, still 
common in Greece, and the diminutive yepaKiv for yepovTtov, 
on the analogy probably of (TKvkaKiov, diminutive of (tkv\o9, 
or, properly speaking, of o-KvXa^. TepaKLv is contracted for 
yepaKLou, and, in modern Romaic, would appear as yepaKL, 

This closes the mediaeval period of Greek literature. 
The first writer who can be said to have used the po- 
pular dialect in its entirety was Theodorus Prodromus, 
nicknamed Ptochoprodromus ; a monk who lived in the 
reign of the emperor Manuel Comnenus, and addressed 
to him a series of popular verses, o-tIxol ttoXltikoI, preserved 
to us by the grammarian Coray in the first volume of his 
^Atacta/ The burden of these verses appears to be the 
poverty of learned men. They are written with great spirit, 
and remind us of Juvenal. The Greek language is now 
emancipated, and begins again to show its native power. 
We subjoin an extract taken from Mr. Sophocles' book 
above-mentioned :— 

Tr}v K€(j)akT)v crou, ^acrikev, ds tovto tl fxe XeycLS ; 

^Av exco yeiTOvav Tivav kexV TratSii' dyopiv, 

Na TOP cItto) Vt, MaOe to ypajxpiaTLKov va (r](Trj ; 

Uapa KpauiapoKecpaXov iravTcs va fi ovopLacrovv, 

Na Tov elnS) Vt, MaBe to T^ayyaprjv to Traibiv aov* 

VcLTOvav €XG> TreT^coTTjv, TaxcL ylrevboT^ayydprjv' 

Il\r)V €V€ KoKo'^ovvLO-Tris, eW Ka\ ;(apofco7ros'. 

"OTav yap idrj ttjv avyrjv Trepixapo.cro'OfjieprjVj 

Aeyet as ^pdarj to Kpacrlv Ka\ ^aXe to iTVTTcpLV' 

"EvOvs TO jSpdaeiv to depfxov Xeyet irpos to Tvaibiv tov 

Na TOj TTaiblv fxov, dyopaare x^P^^'^^''^^ (TTaixevov, 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. Ill 

^€p€ KOL B\a)(LK0V TVpiv aXkr)j/ CTTa/ievapeaVy 

Km dos fJL€ va 7rpoy€V(Tco[iaLj kol t6t€ va Trerfovo). 

'A^* ov be (pddcTTj TO Tvpiv Koi TO. ;(op§oicotXtVfta, 

Kav T€cr(repa top dL8ov(Tip els to rpavov p-ovxpovrLV 

Kal Trap€v6vs virodrjfiav cTralpei kol Trcr^oveL, 
Orav 6e ttoXlv, /SaciXei), yefiaros copa (pddcrrjy 
PtWet TO KoKaTTodtv tov, piTrTet kol to cravtdiv, 

Kal Xeyet ttjv yvvaiKCL tov, Kvpa kol Oes Tpaire^iv' 

Kal TTpCOTOV jJLLO-CrOU (Lat. missus) €K^€(Tt6v, dcVTepOV TO 

(r(povyydTov, 

Kal TplTOV TO CLKpLOiraO-TOV 6(p66v aTTO JJLCpLOV. 

Kal T€TapTou fxovoKvdpov, ttXtju jSXeTre va prj fipd^rj. 
'A0* ov de TTapaSeaovcnv kclI viy\reTai kol KaTO-rj, 
AvaBefxa pe IBacrikev kol Tpco-avdBepd /xe, 
' OvTav (TTpa<pa> Kal 4bco tov Xolttov to ttcos KaBi^ei, 
To TTCJS dvaKopTTovcTaL va Trido-r) to KovToXiVy 
Kal ovbev Tpe\ovv to, (Takia pov, o)s Tpi-^ei to TTOTdpiv, 
Kal eyco vTrdyco k ep^opai rrodas pteTpcov tcov (ttlx^^V 
^v6vs (r)TSi TOV 'lap^oVj yvpevco tov (nrovbelov' 

TvpeVCO TOV TTVppLXtOV Kal TO. XoLTTCl TO, pL€Tpa. 

AXXa Ta peTpa ttov ^(I)€\ovv ^s ttjv ap€Tp6v pov Treivav ] 
Ilore yap €K tov tap^ov va (pdyco KoapoKpdTop ^ 

H TTCOS €K TOV TTVppLXLOV 77076 p.OV VCL ^OpTaaCO * 

E^e T€xvLTr]s (roc[)io-Trjs cKeTvos 6 T^ayydprjs. 
EtVe TO KvpL€ \er](TOV, rjp^aTO povKavl^eiv. 

The language here is essentially modern Greek, though 
the middle voice appears not quite extinct, as we have Trpo- 
y€vo'cop,ai, rjp^aTOy &c.; and v sometimes etymologic, sometimes 
ephelcystic, is written after a number of words where it is 
now left out, as vnodrjpav, Traihlv, ''eSc for i5e Strengthens the 
etymology of ihco from Ibov, OvBev is written for the modern 
dev. The form eW we have referred to on p. 79. 



Il:^ THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 

For the subjoined translation I am responsible : — 

* By your own head, O king, I swear, I do not know your 
meaning : 
Suppose I have a neighbour now, blessed with a boy in breeches. 
Shall I go tell him, "Teach your son his letters for his living"? 
Sure all the world would dub me then a most consummate block- 
head. 
Nay, I should say, " Go, teach your son a bootmaker's profes- 
sion." 
One of my neighbours cobbles shoes, perhaps pretends to make 

them; 
Now there's a famous manager, who understands good living. 
No sooner does he see the dawn streaking the sky to eastward. 
Than straight he cries, " Let boil my wine, and sprinkle in some 

pepper." 
Scarce has the hot potation boiled, when thus he hails his servant : 
" Here boy ! a shilling's worth of tripe go bring me from the 

market : 
A shilling's worth of cheese besides, Thessalian cheese, remember. 
If I'm to cobble shoes to-day, I first must have my breakfast," 
And when the cheese comes with the tripe in dainty little clusters, 
Four times they fill him to the brim a mug of vast dimensions. 
And then he takes a shoe in hand and cobbles at his leisure. 
But when the dinner-time comes round, why then, my lord and 

master, 
Away with last and cobbling-board, the time has come for eating. 
" Good wife," he cries, " come lay the cloth, and get the dinner 

ready. 
Bring me the broth, that's the first course, the second is an 

omelette, 
The third a haunch of venison pie, browned nicely in the oven, 
A mess of hotch-potch for the fourth ; take care it don't boil 

over." 
When all is served and he has washed, and seats himself at 

table, 
Curse me, your gracious majesty, not once, but three times over 
If — as I look and contemplate the way he sits at dinner. 
Unbuttoning his waistcoat first, to hold his spoon the easier — 
It does not fill my hungry mouth with water like a river. 
And I; I go and come again, and measure feet for verses, 



OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. II3 

Now hunting for a short and long, now for two longs together ; 
And now for two short syllables, with all the other measures. 
Alas ! what help the measures my unmeasurable hunger ? 
When, mighty prince, will shorts and longs provide me with a 

dinner ? 
Or how with two short syllables am I to fill my belly? 
Behold a shoemaker indeed, a skilful craftsman truly; 
A blessing asked, he straight proceeds to polish off the victuals.* 



CHAPTER VIIL 
Dialects of Modern Greece^ 

Professor Mullach divides the existing dialects of modem 
Greece into six main varieties, besides Tsakonian and Al- 
banian, whose claim to be considered Greek dialects will 
be separately considered. These six varieties he designates 
as follows:— -I, That of Asia Minor, dvaroXiKr} hakeKTos. 2, 
Chiotic. 3. Cretan. 4. Cyprian, 5, Peloponnesian. 6. 
That of the Ionian Islands. 

I. Dialect op Asia Minor. 

The chief feature of this dialect is the substitution of r for 
0, as reXo) for ^eXo), and k for x ; in general a preference for 
unaspirated tenues. The dialect of Trapezus seems to 
have preserved us several Homeric forms, as a6e = eOev, and 
afjLov = rjjjLos I for the substitution of v for s we may compare 
€xofjL€s, exo^ev, &c., where the ? is first dropt, and then its 
place filled up by v €(p€\KV(rTiK6v, 

In the same dialect, i. e. of Trapezus, dUXorros for aTrarrjXos 
has a very archaic sound. ''Evl and eV still stand for eVr/, i. e. 

eWt. "EXXej/oy = robustus, 'E^€Trdyr] appears as €XTrdy€v, Svyd- 

Trjp as 6ayaT€pa. 'K stands for ovK instead of the modern 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. II5 

Greek 'dev. Ka = Kara). Ma^iXay = pcLTncriia, perhaps a blow 

on the mouth, possibly connected with maxilla^ of which, 
however, the common modern Greek form is \iayo\)kov, Olviapiv, 
from of?, is in place of the modern Kpea? irpo^iov^ or Tzpo^arivov. 

Ov^ stands for ecoy. Jlodnv = depfia, cf. TrecrKOS. To TrpojSav = ro 
TTpo^arov, Tiohebi^co = deop^ai, cf. yovari^co. 



2. The Chian Dialect 

is said to preserve the Homeric Ke, which appears also in 
Pontus as k€s, but I have never been able to discover an 
example in any of the Chian poems which I have read. 
'ASam is explained by Mullach ^'drj vvv. Aa certainly stands 
for drj in modern Greek, as eXa da = exactly aye §77, eXa being 
imperative present from iXdco or iXdfco, the root form of iXdfvco 

= iXavvco. So too Kafjie^dd, o-)(l ^a, (for ovxi S77). 



3. The Cretan Dialect 

abounds in peculiar forms and archaic usages. In the 
pronunciation the most marked feature is the sound of k as 
ch in cherry before e and i sounds. 'Yo-eTy is said to stand 
for the modern o-et?, eVeT? = v\ifi^. The omission of the aug- 
ment and the use of 6, 37, to as a relative strongly remind us 
of the Epic and Ionic dialects : e. g. 

TCi Kdfiav Kol TO. (pepav. 

In Epic, TO, KdjJLOV KOL TO, (p€pOV, 

In Cretan we also get the dialectic form povSe for firjTe. 

4. The Cypeian Dialect 

appears, in common with that of Rhodes, to leave cut in 
many instances the semivowels d and 7, as (xeaXos = iieyaXos 

I 2 



Il6 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

for fieyas, to) ev to aXXd(r(TCd for iycb dev to aXXao-cro). MuUach 

well compares oXlos Sicilian for oXlyos, lo)v, Icovya Boeotic for 
eycoye, a/3a) Epic for Xei/So), and Tot, rat for Tob\ and Ta^\ in the 
Elian Rhetra. 'Corpus Inscript.' ii. Klos for okiyos is a 
Cyprian form. We have also the Pindaric opvix^^ ^r opviOa, 

and also ^ax^s for Pddos, In Meo-afovpla, or MecralBovpLa, the 

digamma is preserved, r stands for the consonantal tcora, 

as X^Py^ fo^ X^P^"' crapavrapya for [Tecr]a-apa[Ko]r^rapta. The 

termination /oz/ of diminutives appears as tV, as in Ptocho- 
prodromus and later Roman period (whereas in the common 
dialect of Greece it appears as /) ; e. g. l3ovpiv, Traiblv, fieXlo-o-Lv: 
also TovTov for TovTo ; cf in Attic TavTov for TavTo^ and tolovtov 
for TOLovTo : the latter form belonging also to Herodotus 
and the Odyssee. Adfivco stands for iXavvco, as aepvbs for 
ae^vos : IT and p seem also interchangeable, as we get pXolov 

for nXolov and Trvrjpa for fJLVTJpa, JJov va pi^opev Tcopa j whlther 

shall we now tend? pe^opeu being connected with opeyopai. 
We get also the metathesis ddpKva, Tp€7rv6s, for ddKpva, TepTrms. 
Tp67rop,aL and TepTTopat are possibly the same root, in which 
case Tpecpco alone would be referable to the Sanscrit Irt'p, 
tripdydmi. This metathesis leads us to connect Tdp^os, Tap- 
/Seca, Tap^v^co with the modern Greek rpaSeco, eTpd^i^a, to turn 
or /^ go away, which doubtless was the original significa- 
tion of Tap^eco, In Cyprus as well as in Crete the enclitic 
seems to be preferred to the proclitic construction, cldd tov to 

Tov elda. 



5. The Peloponnesia^ Dialect 

in general seems to prefer verbs in an uncontracted form, 
as Tipdco, TLpdeis, TLpdec. It appears to use the nominative for 
the accusative in such words as €(prjp€p\s for ecj^rjpepida, but 
this may be a matter of pronunciation only. By a curious 
metathesis To-rj stands for ttjs as well as for tovs. This is 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, ri7 

also found, I believe, in the dialect of the Ionian Islands, and 
certainly in that of Crete. 

In addition to these general divisions, MuUach notices 
especially the dialect of Thera as peculiarly harsh and sing- 
ing, and draws attention to the archaism ttcos aKoveis for nuis 
ovofid^co-ai. A/Soo/xt, in modern Greek dldco or StSoVco, appears 

as dovo), Ta TTpcLTT) = ra npayfJiaTay from to irpdros. This muSt 

Stand for rb irpdicos, and strengthens the theory of philologers 
that TTpay-, TO TTpdyos &c. are weakened for rrpdK-. Xp-q^aTdo) 
= x/377ftarea), which in the common dialect means only, * I 
employ myself, spend my time,' &c., as ixp^fJidTrjo-a dvo eTrj els 
TO ypa(f)€26v Tov, ^ I was employed two years at his office,' — is 
idiomatically used, according to Mullach, for xPW^i^^^^, among 
the Theraeans. 

In Cythnus, Psyra, and Chios, elvTas, elvTa is used for r/s, 
TL, which appears to b^ a transposition for TLvas, metaplastic 
from Tis (compare ovTa[s'] or ovTa[v] for oTau) ; and as such 
should be written 'IpTas, Ivra, Yet ovTav looks very like 6We dv 
[xpoVoj/], especially when we remember that ovre = ore occurs, 
as well as ovTav for otqv. In Cythnus too the termination ve 
seems to be added on to certain words with no meaning at 

all, as XVP^'^^ yLV€-V€j [lavpa (popeOrj-pe, i. e. XI P^ iyiv€TO, p.avpa 

icjyopedrj, where it would seem we have the archaism of a 
neuter plural being used with a singular verb. In Cythnus 
epxoixaL makes rjpxa, instead of rjpSa or rjXda, an additional 
ground for connecting in one root epOovpLai, epxopai, rj\6ov, 
TjvOov, and rjpOa, 

In Siphnos, Naxos, and Thera, the forms exovo-t, et;^ao-t are 
preferred to exovv and elxav. They are also common in 
Crete. 

^ In Amorgos, Calymnos, and Astypalaea, x palatal is pro- 
nounced as sh, e. g. e^et esht. The augment is lengthened, 

as rjypa(j)a for €ypa<pov : cf. the COmmon form ^ma for einov. 

The same thing occurs in ancient Greek in SeXco, fjO^kov ; and 



Il8 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

as rjOeXov implies a form eWXo), so probably eVtVo), €ypd<l)(o are 
obsolete forms from which rjypaipa and ^ma have arisen. In 
these islands oTOLfxos and oXevSepos occur for eroLp^os and eXev- 
^epoy. Compare the common form op,op(j)os for epopcpos, i. e. 

In Patmos the Aeolic accent, dXrjSrjs, Kolpos, vepov, kovtu, 
KoXoSf ^poxn^ obtains. 

In Rhodes, Carpathos, and Calymnos, etx^®; ^ei^ev, ovXevco 

stand for d€Lxi^(o (i. e. deLKvvit)^, edei^eu, dovXevco, Also yvcoplco 

and (Tvpcico for yvcopl^co and o-ui^a^o), implying the forms yvcopi^-oy 
and o-i;my« : afterwards, by the insertion of Icora =y, made 

into yvcoplfyo, (TVvdyyOy and hence yvcopL^cOj avud^co. 

Here too, as in Asia, k appears to supplant x, as e/cco, o-to- 
Ka^opm, epKopai, reKuiTrjs. Here k may sometimes be the 
earher sound. Te^^^ is really aspirated from reKvr}, compare 
T6KTCOV, TLKTco, €T€Kop, So in modcm Grcck deUvco becomes 
8€Lxvco ; diodKvco, bicaxvoa, and in ancient Greek i^amvrjs is con- 
tracted to i^alcbprjs. N appears to have an aspirating influ- 
ence on a preceding tenuis. At the beginning of a word x 
sounds like k, as kdpis for x^P''^- 

In Carpathos we get rercrapes for rio-aapes, an intermediate 
form between reo-crap^s and rerrapes, as KOTo-vcpos is between 
K6(T(rv<pos and Korrvcpos : and I cannot doubt the feminine ter- 
mination tVo-a, common in modern Greek, to be intermediate 
between lo-o-a and trra, as seen in peXto-a-a, piXirra, notwith- 
standing the accent, which may arise in modern Greek from 
a Doricized lonicism, i. e. iVo-t;, Iro-a. 

In Rhodes, a is often weakened to e, as cnrepiv, (T(j>oyy€piv 
for o-LTopiov, (Trroyydpiov (here too notice the termination lv), 
euoL^e for civoL^e ; yeXavrjs appears in ancient Greek for yaXrjvds ; 
yaXT]VT] plainly means ^ the smile of the sea.' Compare too 
veXos, TTveXov, ttUCo), and their corresponding forms vaXos^ 

TTvaXov, TTld^CO. 

In Carpathos, similarly, we have nevTiKos and KadiXov for 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, II9 

TTovTiKos and KadoXov. "oXvfjLTTos Is callcd '^EXvfjLTTos at the pre- 
sent day. 

Professor Mullach observes that fewer diminutives are 
found on the islands than on the mainland : the old forms 
Tpdyos, (TKvXos, and KpLos, have not yielded to rpayly aKvXlj and 

Kpidpi. 

We have now to consider a very singular phenomenon in 
the shape of the Tsakonian dialect, the language of the inha- 
bitants of the ancient Cynuria. We can at present do little 
more than state a few pecuHar forms and grammatical 
■vagaries on the authority of Professor Mullach. First, then, 
we have undeniable Doricisms and antique forms which 
seem to carry us back to that period when Greek had 
scarcely parted from Latin. As Doricisms (partly Boeotic) 

let us notice (pcova for (pcovr}, ktovttS} for ktvttcOj cf. ydovTTOS, 

ydovTTG) in Homer. An apparent tendency to use the voca- 
tive for the nominative, as ^oro-xv for ^orpvs, hevovfx^ve for 

dvmpevos, Kanve, dere, x^P^y which in the formS vopo^ (T0(p6 

seems to explain itself partly as a dislike to s as a termina- 
tion, is paralleled by certain forms in Homeric Greek. 

Compare iVTroVa, ve(^eXr)y^peTa with the Tsakonian TroXira, 

vavra, €pipj]Ta, T^xvira, Trpocjyrjra. Other peculiar forms are as 
follows : — KpU = Kpeas, eKavov = iKavca, an Undoubted archaism ; 

yovvoLKa = yvvri, kov€ = kvcov, viovra = vvKra^ i. e. vv^, vvxo- = ovvx-^, 
cf. vvcrcTcOy i. e. vvxycOy Trao-xa = Trdaa, evBcrx^ = evdev (another 

archaism), To-xi = tI : cj)oCovp€vos = (polSovpevos, and (pv^ovpev — 
(pvy(op€v, cf. (pvC^. Zeioy Stands, according to Mullach, for ^aoy, 
but he does not inform us for which Selos, whether in the sense 
of uncle, or in the sense of divine. If it stand for the latter, 
I should derive it not from 6fio^, but from Kio^, and write 
Cio^y which might be compared with dplCrjXo^ and dpldrjXos, &c. 
Z stands in Tsakonian instead of k before e and t sounds, 
which is only to be explained, so far as I see, by assuming 



120 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

that K was first softened to y. Thus /cm, yal = yie = fe. K is 
found for tt, as klclvco for 7riaz/oa. P for \, as ypouo-o-a for 

yXaxraa. AaicrvXos becomeS darvXo, npof^ara Trpovara, the semi- 
VOWel changing to a vowel, irodo, nova; SeXco, 6eov and rax^ov] 

didoy-fjiLy diov ( observe the tendency, noticed elsewhere in 
Greek, to drop 8 and X) ; kvv€s becomes kovf, K^cfyaXr] (ovcj^aKa, 

SvfJLovco OvyiOVKoVj dyanovcra dyarrova ; apovpa (another archaism) 
appears as ayovpa * avOpconos aBpcoTTOy orKid fta, dpTrd^co = af'ipdycu, 
i. e. dpTrayo) : ya is for yaXa, like /cpt, bSa^ epi, I3p7, aK<pL. "AvQe 

is for apT09j which I have above connected with dXSeco, dXeBco, 
aX(j)iTou, dXevpov, &c. I therefore dissent from Professor 
Mullach in regarding duOe as a word unknown elsewhere in 
the Greek language. Uop^axe ( = vvv), to which Dr. Mullach 
can assign no etymology, appears to me to be evidently 
noppccSev, i. e. henceforth, further, as the Greeks say rcopa 
ttX^ov in the common dialect, and the Germans nunmehr. 
"EvBev becomes evScrx^i and OeXco to-x^ov, therefore 'noppcoBev 
would naturally become TvoppcoSax^i^, while « and o, as we 
have seen, readily become e, as in Kove, Kairvi, We thus get 
iToppeOcrx^v, the v of which may of course be dropped at 
pleasure ; and this is quite near enough to rropecrx^ to leave 
no doubt in my mind as to the derivation. The declension 
of the pronouns presents us with some very extraordinary 
phenomena : — 



> v 



eyo) = eaov r]fJL€LS = €vv, €fJLV 

e/xoi/ /Lit r)p.cDV vdfjLOV 

ip.6i pX rjpuv vdpov 

ipe ivLOV Tjpds ipovvave 

(TV — €KLOV, G. Tly D. VL, A. KLOV. 

PL ipov, G. VLOvpoVy D. viovpov, A. epov. 

Of the third person only the following cases are known 

G. cr/, D. Tij A. crt. 

PL, G. and D. aov. 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 121 

Here iKiov is plainly for i-nov = tlov = rv. Cf. the Boeotian 

Alovo-lus for Avo-ias^ &C. ; for the k, klijlco, &c. 

"EkcIvos is declined as follows : — 

N. €T€LP€p€, €T€LVaij €K€LVl, 

G. €T€LVOVf €T€LPapt, ereivov. 

D. wanting. 

A. €T€LV€Vl, ^T€LVaVL, €K€LVL, 

It is difficult to conceive how these words can be accented 
as Professor Mullach writes them. No less extraordinary is 
the change from r to k in the Nom. and Ace. neuter. 

The formation of this declension, so far as it can be traced^ 
is evidently barbarous, and proves to my mind that the 
Tsakonian is no pure dialect, but a jargon or lingua franca ; 
and I think we shall be able to trace certain Semitic elements 
in the structure of the conjugation. Here ireiv^pe seems to 
me to stand barbarously enough for kKelvos 6, in broad La- 
conian cKelvop 6 eTeivdi for €K€Lva rjy and €T€LpapL still more bar- 
barously for €K€Lvap T]. Yet the t may be in all these cases 
merely the well-known demonstrative termination ; and per- 
haps in that case irelvepe should be ireLvepi, 

For ovTos we get the inexplicable form : — 

N. evrepi^ evrdi, XyyL, 
G. evTov, evrapij evTov, 

D. wanting. 

A. €VT€VLj evravL, eyyt. 

PI. N. eWeV for all genders. 
A. Masc. €VTov. 

TLs and Ti = respectively t(\ and r^ey or rcrxi "O?, ^, 6, is oTrovf , 
oTTova, €T€LV€pi; whcrc we have a clear case of barbarism, 
inasmuch as the masculine and feminine endings e (^for os) 
and a are added on to the modern Greek indeclinable relative 

OTTOV, 



I2!Z DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

Et/xt is conjugated thus in the present, €vi, eo-a-i, eVi^t ; e/ut/xe, 

ere, hvL ; and in the imperfect, e/xa, eVa, e/ct ; efJLfJLa'lj erdl, XyKidi. 

These forms are hopelessly barbarous, but it is pretty 
plain that e-zct is formed by adding a fragment of iKcivos, ku 
on to the prevailing vowel of the root, while in Ki-di we have 
two suffixes, one to show the third person, the other to mark 
the plural, viz. t, which runs all through the imperfect plural, 
and is probably nothing else than the article ol added on. 
This again is just what we should expect from a Semitic 
race trying to learn Greek. The further formation of tenses 
is equally remarkable : iyafirjica and e/x7roka are formed as a 
kind of aorist-perfects in Greek fashion, but the present and 
imperfect are expressed by the participle and the substantive 
verb joined by the letter p, which perhaps stands for a-, in 
which case we must assume that to simplify matters ypdcj)(&v 
became ypdcjyos, Laconian ypd(f>op, and that p was written by 
analogy after a, where however, agreeably to our theory, it 
may be optionally left out. What is plain is, that these 
foreigners who were trying to learn Greek looked at each 
termination as a separate word, and probably regarded the 
root ypa(p- as in itself the participle, in accordance with 
Semitic principles of grammar. However that may be, 
ypd(pco is in Tsakonian ypa(p-ov-p-€VL or ypa(p'a-p-€vi, accord- 
ing as the subject is masculine or feminine, and so forth. 
The substantive verb may also be prefixed, evt ypd(j>ov, evi 

ypd(})a, &C. So, too, the imperfect, ep^a ypd<pov, or ypa<j)ov- 
p/fta, &C. 

The present passive is similarly formed : ypacjyovpevepevi, &c., 

or €i'L ypa(f)ovpev€, &C., i. C. ypa(p6pev6s icTTij SlC. 

The future is thus expressed : Seov vd eVt ypa<pT€, i.e. BeXco 
va Tjpai instead of Se\(£> eladai ypajTros ; the verbal adjective 
supplying the place of the perfect participle. 

With the periphrastic present and imperfect we cannot avoid 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 23 

comparing the Spanish esfqy escridiendo, and drawing atten- 
tion to the fact that Spanish and Portuguese, the only Neo- 
Latin languages which were subjected to Semitic influences, 
are likewise the only ones in which this idiom is found. In 
Hebrew there is no present tense, and, properly speaking, 
no imperfect, but the meaning is given by the participle and 
the pronoun, which are in force exactly equivalent to the 
participle -f substantive verb in an Indo-Germanic language. 
It is plain that the Tsakonian language did not develope, 
like other dialects of Greece, in a natural way. It is the 
language of a foreign race, adopting and adapting the 
materials of the Greek language, not once and for all, but 
gradually, partly during the time that Greek was still ancient 
Greek, and partly after it had become modern. The old 
Doric forms iVTroVa, a, &c., show that this foreign, as I think 
Semitic, tribe was settled in Cynuria before dialectic distinc- 
tions had been obliterated by the koivtj didXeKTos : yet as we 
cannot with certainty assert that they ever were quite oblite- 
rated, it is hard to say how early or how late the settlement 
may have been formed. Again, iVTroVa, &c. may not be so 
old as Homer, for it may only be mutilated for tTTTroVas-, as 
all words ending in s are. But at any rate, the Tsakonian 
dialect has preserved many ancient Greek words, as ojpam 
for eldov, iyLTTOLKa for eKafia, 'opdco and Troieco are not found 
in the language of the common people in the present day. 
Again, the distinction between dative and accusative is still 
partially preserved. The word eKavov = kduco seems to take 
us back nearly to Homer. To KcoXe for t6 ^iXov and ayovpa 
= apovpa point back to a time far anterior to the later period 
of ancient Greek, certainly as far back as heathen times. 
On the other hand, many of the forms and constructions 
are plainly corruptions of modern Greek. 

That there has been then from time immemorial settled 
in Cynuria a foreign tribe which has mangled the Greek 



124 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 

language, and clung to it in its mangled form with a tenacity 
which is astounding, I think I may assume has been made 
out. But what was this foreign tribe ? I know of but one 
people who are capable of doing what the Tsakonians have 
done, and that people is the Jewish race. They alone 
choose by a natural instinct the very broadest and harshest 
dialect of the people among whom they settle ; they alone 
seem capable of giving to each word the most barbarous and 
mutilated form which the imagination can conceive ; they 
are the only race which, though they live for centuries among 
strangers, will never learn to speak their adopted tongue 
correctly. Some Semitic element must certainly be at the 
bottom of the Tsakonian dialect, and what Semitic race so 
likely to have founded inland colonies but the Jews ? In the 
Tsakonian words for brother and sister^ a6\ and a6ia, I cannot 
but recognise a genuine Hebrew formation. Brother in 
Hebrew is ""H^ (in the construct form), and »7''D.^ seems a 
possible, though not in classical Hebrew an actual form, for 
the feminine of T'^? i. e. sister. In the plural of the first per- 
sonal pronoun we see, I think, a grotesque attempt to com- 
bine the vowels and consonants of the Hebrew and Greek. 
In the nominative ^^^. anu, we have the two forms Ivv and 
€/Ltv, of which the first form is Httle more than an iotacized 
transcription of the Hebrew; while the other has a little 
more resemblance to the Greek form. The genitive and 
dative vd-fxov, seem to be made up of the Hebrew frag- 
mentary suSix ^^, and a similar fragment of the Greek 
TjfioiP, We have already seen by various examples, as ypdcj^ov 
= ypdcf)cDv, KLiJLov = TLiJLcoVj &c., that ov stauds for 'cov, and 
knowing that a = ov, e.g. e/xa = ^'^ow, we have no difficulty in 
writing vufiov into the required form vov-yLCDv, at once. In the 
accusative ifxovvave, which could scarcely have attained so 
extraordinary a length except on some such theory as that 
here advanced, we seem to have the elements iyL-dvaxvov = e/x- 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 125 

''^n?^ softened first into i^avavov, and then, the final ov 
becoming weakened into t, and compensated in the second 
syllable, ifiovvavi, and hence ifiovpave^ the t being weakened 
in its turn into e, as in Xeyowe, elve, &c., &c. The accusative 
singular ivlov is evidently ''^^ = ivl and the fragment ou, 
which is either a part of io-ov = in Tsakonian eyco, i.e. eyj/d) 
= icrcroi}, or morc probably is simply the ending of the 
first person of verbs in co which in Tsakonian = ou, and 
would of course by a Semitic race be regarded as a pro- 
nominal suffix, as indeed, in its original form, it really 
was. The foreigners whose settlement in Cynuria we were 
supposing, seem to have been rather puzzled by the fact 
that with the slight difi'erence, unheard perhaps among the 
Greeks even in very early times, as now, and in any case 
barely distinguishable to the Semitic ear, between 17 and v, 
the first and second- persons plural were the same, i.e. v/jlhs 
and Tjfxels, Having formed ijiovvave = rjfjias, they left out the 
vdv€, which seemed to them the part of the word most clearly 
indicative of the first person, and used the mutilated ijiov for 
both the nominative and accusative of rjidels, the more so as 
ifjLov came nearer their pronominal fragment D^ than did eW. 

The genitive and dative vlov/jlov, seem to be for lovfuv and 
lovf.i(ov = vijuv and vfjLcoVj but with some prefix, probably t^ and 
U=X€ and fjn : /xt regularly becomes v in Tsakonian, e.g. i^la 
= fila, &c. ; while X might very well become so. In any 
case the analogy of modernizing Greek would soon make 
the dative take the same form as the genitive. 

The way in which a ( = H) is added as a feminine termina- 
tion on to an indeclinable base, as in onova, as well as perhaps 
''H in cTCLvdl, the correspondence of the frequently recur- 
-ring masculine termination e with nt and ov with '^n^ all 
point to a complete confusion of Greek and Hebrew gram- 
mar ; a phenomenon the more interesting, as I believe it is 
held by Professor Max Miiller to be an impossibility. 



126 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

I copy out for the perusal of the reader one or two short 
specimens of the Tsakonian dialect, given by Professor 
MuUach in his 'Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache/ 
taking the liberty to emend his text, where such emendation 
appears obvious. 

I. 

Nia yovvalKa exa via Korra orrova KadafJL€pa Zki yevvova 

Mia yvvrj ^ ct^e fJilav Korrav (opvtv) rjTis KaOrjjjLepav iyevva 

€va avyo, €kl vojxi^a av vcbl rav Korra rrao-x^ Kpicri 6a y^vvdci 
ev avyov, ivofiL^e av dcoarj rfj opviOi ttoXv KpiOiov 6a yevva 

dv^oXal Kar dfxepa ^e v\ i/jLTrol^e, 'AXXa d Korra, dno 

Bvo ^oXas Ka6* rjfjiepav Ka\ rfj (to) eKafie. *AXXa tj opvcSj dno 

Trdcrxov iraxov dev ifiTTOpt^e Trkla vd yevvdrj Kaveva avyo, 

TToWov Trdxovs dev rjfjLTropeo-e irkeov vd yevva Kavev avyo. 

The translation underneath is in modern Greek, Note 

that e/XTTOtfe = iTTOiKCj as Koi — fe« 



Hepov eva Kove aTTo to TTOTafxo fie to KpU V to Tovpa 
JJepoyv €LS KvoDV drro tov TroTafiov fxe to Kpeas els to G-Topux 

{*€ opov Tdcrov (Heb. Tdxa6 ?) to vo to [tt] ?] vaK66-' 

Ka\ 6pa>v VTTOKdTco TOV vdaTos rrjv aTTO- 

crxcLcn eKC vofil^ov nov to KdT<o Spovfxeve eKi aXXe 

(TKLacnv = TTjV elKova evofxi^e ttcos to fcdro) opoofievov ^to aXXos 

Kove TV eKL exov Kple o* to Tovfjia, TOTe d(prj(e to dXT]6Lv6 did 
Kvcov oTTov €LX^ Kpeas els TO (TTOfxa, TOTe dcprJKe to dXrj6iv6v did 

vd rrdpe to Spovpeve^ /cat eKL fe dno Td dovo crTepovTe. 

vd Trdpr) TO opSpevoVj Ka\ earTeprj6rj Ka\ tcov dvo. 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. T27 

3. The Lord's Prayer. 

*A(l)eyya \_Av6evTa ?] va^ov^ it eVt ^arbv ovpave, va evi ayiadre to 
ovvofidv Ti, va va6fj to OeXrjfxdv tl, va jJioXj] a jBaaiXcLav tl ^arav V 
Tov ovpav€, €^pov fe es Tav lyrj' tov av6e tov iinovcrLov b\ vd/jLOv vi 
[vLv ?] a-dfjL€p€' (e o(p€ vdfjLOv TO, p^pTe vd^ov KaOov fe €vv ififiacfjlvTe 
TOV p^peou^tXtre vdfjLOVy ^e fxrj va (pepi^epe ifiovvave V KeLpacrpo, dWa 

iXevOepov vdfxov dno to KaKo, Notice the archaism poXr]. I 
remember seeing the form lyrjv or 'lyiv as a Jvidaeo-Greek 
form in a specimen of Hebraistic modern Greek, but where 
I saw it I cannot now recall to mind. I cannot think of any 
Greek derivation for e^pov : the first part may be the Hebrew 
Tijt. Comparing e^pov with Ka6ov, we see that it stands for 
eCpcos: cf. also above, ttov for 7Ta)s, ''E^pm would be the 
Greek writing of b^^^"i""ti^ = then first ; dann erst German, turn 
demum'L'dX,; the sense being, * as in heaven, so afterwards on 
earth.' The omission of o- in Tovp.a for dTopLa is also Hebra- 
istic, the combination (tt at the beginning of a word not 
being tolerated. Observe no Spanish word begins with st 
or sp. 

On a review of all the evidence, we find ourselves quite 
unable to say with Dr. Mullach, ' Die Sprache der Zakonen 
ist fur uns ein noch unentwickelter Zweig der altesten Ges- 
taltung des Hellenismus (!) und ein Schliissel zu verschie- 
denen Erscheinungen sowohl der alten und heutigen Dia- 
lecte, als der verwandten Sprachen.' 

It is true that some light may be thrown on other lan- 
guages, especially those in a transition state or in a process 
of amalgamation, by means of the Tsakonian dialect. For 
the rest we are sure that it can be no primitive or unde- 
veloped form of Greek, because we know that the greater 
part of Greek accidence was ready made before ever the 
Greek nation rose into existence. 



128 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

I cannot agree with the derivation To-aKcaves from KavKcoves : 
K might become ra, pronounced almost as ck in church, 
before palatal vowels ; but I know no instance in Greek of 
such a change before a guttural vowel. The other deriva- 
tion, Adfccoi/e?, is yet more improbable. 

In conclusion, I must leave the question to Semitic scholars. 
I feel confident that the more the matter is investigated, the 
more clear it will become that Tsakonian is a hybrid pro- 
duction of Greek and some Semitic language ; whether 
Hebrew or not I will leave to others to determine. 

I will pass on to consider as briefly as possible the Al- 
banian language in relation to Greek. The popular notion 
of the Greeks themselves that the Albanians are the ancient 
Pelasgians, may be after all not very far from the truth. 
Certain it is, that in Albanian, in spite of its corrupt or 
modernized state, as seen in the poverty of its case endings, 
&c., we do undoubtedly find the meeting point of Greek and 
Latin. Albanian is neither more nor less than modern 
Graeco-ItaUc ; and no greater service could be rendered to 
Comparative Grammar than an ideal reconstruction of an- 
cient Albanian. 

I can now do no more than barely indicate a few instances 
of the connection of Albanian with Greek on the one hand, 
and Latin on the other. First, then, the very alphabet is 
mixed in Albanian. We have both d and h as well as / and 
6 ; we have again both e and ^, and b as well as /3. Besides 
this we have, as in Sanscrit, a palatal v written h^ and a palatal 
r = r, like ri in Sanscrit. Again, the palatal y and /c, which 
in modern Greek are used only before palatal vowels, have 
in Albanian an independent existence, like ja and chd in 
Sanscrit, which are only modifications of palatal g and k. 
In a word, there is a far greater wealth of both vowel and 
consonantal sounds in Albanian than in Latin and Greek j 
and it is plain that when Graeco-Latin separated into Latin 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 29 

and Greek, the Greeks took along with them C ^ and S, &c., 
the Latins 3 and d, &c., while many sounds, as for example 
sk, zk, they left behind them as far as we know altogether. 

The fact that we find in Albanian the Greek and Latin 
sounds combined, proves the general identity of the modern 
with the ancient Greek pronunciation to something very Hke 
demonstration. 

To proceed to the grammar. The first thing that strikes 
us is the preservation in Albanian of the infinitive endings 
€vai, dvai, and €^ev-ai, corresponding to the Latin substantive 
terminations e7t-i or e?t-e, and men-z or men-e : cf. pec/en-e, 
no?7ien-e, spedmen-e, &c. In Albanian we have these sub- 
stantive endings, as in Greek, but the infinitive mood is 
expressed not by a case-ending or suffix, but a separate 

word prefixed ; e.g. (pdv-ai - jxe Bdvow, Xvo-e^ev-ai = /xe \v(Tovfiovv. 

The termination -ovfiew slightly varied actually appears in 
Albanian as a substantive ending, e. g. apde^ev = eXevo-is, 
TrpedLKLfjLLv = praedicatio. Albanian gives us again the transition 
between -\xi and «, in the form o/x, (/)r7/xi = 66\x, 

Albanian preserves the ablative termination /, which it uses 
for the genitive case ; e. g. 

vde dlTT te fJippeTLT kpodlt. 

Explanation : — in[de) diehus tov impWdtov = imperatoris He- 
ro dis, with Greek termination r^-9 for -or, 

T as the sign of the third person singular in verbs is like- 
wise preserved in Albanian, as 6a>T = (^arl = ^t^o-/. But this / 
is often weakened into v, both in the third person singular 
and the second plural. 

I will give a few paradigms illustrating the relation between 
the verbal terminations in Albanian and Greek. 

Present. 

Oop. -- (papl = (p7]p\ Bova = (l)ap€v 

6ov€ = (^aal = ^779 Sovi = (f>dT€ 

Scot = (jiarl = (prjcrl Bwv = (paalv, i.e. (pai'Ti. 

K 



130 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

Aorist. 
Bdv = €cl)acrav. 

Imperfect, 

SaxTLV = eipacTKOv, 

eSo-tp in form is to be compared with rjaav, Albanian ^6-ip. 

With Ood-re = €cl)acrKe compare tore = eWe. 

'"EpSa = modern Greek ^pOa^ classical rjXdov; root, per- 
haps Sanscrit ard- 'to come;' epdefj. = rfkSoiJLcv, rjpSafie; apBr = 
iXOero); apdow =^ iXBelv, le. iXOefxev. 

i^ip-i, <KC. = ta/ij te^ aoTj tej/a, t€i/t^ lav, 

Albanian explains to us the meaning of the termination 
^«, which is so common in Greek both as an aorist and 
perfect termination, as we see in €-6r]-Ka, e-^w-m, de-dco-Ka, and 
in modern Greek in evprjKa, oapaKa (Tsakonian), iypdc[)riKa, &c. 
In Albanian Kap. = €X(o, of which one form seems to have 
been €kco. 

Now the perfect in Albanian is thus formed :— 

KapL ddvovp Keva bdvovVo 

K€ Mpovv KevL ddvovVo 

KCL Sdvovp KGLV ddvovv» 

Literally exco bovvai^ Sec, as in modern Greek cx^) bodo-ei. 
In de-dcoKa, and e-dcoKa, the root of the verb is put for the 
infinitive, and m = exQ> is used as a suffix. 

The Albanian for and is ed/, plainly the Homeric Ide and 

Uov and TTov are in Albanian kov^ the original form : rls 
and tI are kI and kq; Sanscrit kak^ kd^ kim^ Latin qui. 
qms^ &c. 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. I31 

I will now illustrate the language further by a few sen- 
tences and words : — 

*^Epb€ iibe T6 (TOyaT, e6e re croyaT vovk. i TTpiriv, 
^HX^€ cifKJA TCL sua 7]d€ fa sua vr]-ovK i TTapeXajBov, 

or Sa. 
Ot €<pa, 

'AroT = avTa. Cf. avrap and drdp^ modern Greek dros 
and avTos. 

OvdoVK, 

'E-doK-et 

Ovd€L(j)TOV€» 

St ep^ev, 

Sz = 0T€, rjpOav. 

N^e d-T€7rr), 

Inde o-K67r7]v ~ ore rfKBov els rrjv ohlav, N^e appears tO be 
the Latin zndu-, indi-, or inde-^ and phk ahove^ the 
Latin amhi^ Greek dp.^i ; \kh\ ( = eVi) is probably only 
another form of the same word. 

\0UTiv, €-<pOLTT]'(raV. 

Y6p(j)€P, i. e. Fop(j)ev = 6p(j)av6s, 
l^di€KLP^ dta)Kovv • vdoKev^ idlcDK-crav, 
BerOrfer=f€(9ez/(?). 

Kovpfima = TTopvela^ and would suggest an older form, 

KGp^uela or Kopfvela, 

MdaXa(pdK€ = eV tw ^av€p^. The etymology is plainly in 

paid facie (palus = open^ implied in palani). 
Mlkov = amicus ; vefiUow, inimicum, 

Koi)\ovT€ = dnokvTOL quasi qkoXovtol (?). 

Mcbj ddrjSj {JLTJ TTOlfjS, 

K 2 



J ^2 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 

"AaTraK, dira^ (?). 
Ov'dd<pT, TTOirjSrjTCi). 
Aeou = yala^ 6ala, yrj. 
Arte, 6/cet. 

Biediv, IBid^ovaLv, ^id^ovu. 
Kpzle, Kapa. 

UovX = iyevvr](Te, In modern Greek ttovKos is a patro- 
nymic termination. Cf. Latin pullus, Greek ircokos, 
also -pulus in disci-pulus^ Albanian dLo-errovXi. 

The word for God in Albanian is liipvdia Uepvdi, gen. 
JJepvdLe or Ueppdiare, acc. Uepvdtve, Does this word contain 
the same elements as Diespiier, reversed ? 

The view that beiktvov and r^Xios are connected is some- 
what strengthened by the Albanian for tjXlos, which is diki. 
''Eroff is in Albanian Fir, cf. Latin veius^ Sanscrit vatsas. Fit 
becomes in the plural Aer^. 

It is interesting to find in the modern Greek icperos, i. e. 
im eros, the relic of the F in the form of the aspirate. In 
'Evtafros, dfros is probably only transposed for Faros, and this 
helps us to understand Fekrev, the Albanian for avrov in 
eavTov, i Fekrev being equal to e- avrov, I have written (3 here 
and elsewhere as F, because it seems almost always to re- 
present that letter. But the literal changes in Albanian seem 
by no means regular : /i for instance represents sometimes 
X, and sometimes (f), though it must be borne in mind that 
these letters are interchangeable in Greek. Thus we have 

hip, X^P^^f /l€pe, (popd'j dre-hepe = avrfj (popq, i.e. vvv, du hepe dvo 

ct)opd9, modern Greek for dU. Also /la rpwyo), connected 
with root (j^dy- ; kdvypow, (payelv, (Is hunger connected with 
this form 1) 

Two Latin particles receive great light from Albanian, viz. 
re and se. 'Pi in Albanian means 7iew, and (j\ in composition 
ere, means not, e.g. o-*p.ovvder, ov dvvaraL, crefxovvdi = ddvparoi, i.e. 
daOevels, appcoaroiy voaovures. 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 33 

A passive verb is changed into an active in Albanian by 

prefixing the syllable ov^ e. g. bavow = bovvai, ovbdvow = boOrjvai, 

The future tense is formed, like the perfect, by means of 
KaiJL ( = exco) and the infinitive, but in the future the preposi- 
tion fxe is inserted : examples, m^ jue Trepytatrovv, Sjioioiorco, Kc^i 
TrepyLaLTOvv cojxolcdKa, kq/jl fJL€ 0V7T€pyLaLT0vv, ofjLOLcoBrjcreTai. 

The pronouns in Albanian present some very remarkable 
phenomena : — 



Greek. 


Albanian. 


N. iycov, Icbv 


ovv. 


A. fxe 


fii encHtic, fiove emphatic. 


G. fjiov, fielo 


fieye, fxejyeL 


D. fJLol 


^6, fxeye. 



With the plural it is better to compare the Latin :■ — 

N. nos vd. 

A. nos, Sanscrit nah vd, emphatic ve. 

G. Sanscrit nah veL 

D. nobis, Sanscrit ?iah vefe, enclitic vd. 

In this vefe, written also with the ablative termination vefer, 
we have the Latin &is or bus, the Sanscrit dkz'h, the Greek 
<^t; or rather we have the Sanscrit dh] the common element 
in -5/iih, -hhyam, -bhyah, &c., for ve- has not only a dative, 
but more often an ablative, i. e. genitive force, as in drvvefe = 

€K€iv<ov, re TiovdefeT, rcov ^lovdaicop. 

Greek. Albanian. Sanscrit. Albanian. 

N. 2u, TV t\ yuyam yov. 

A. 2e rl yushmdn yov, 

G. relo Teye, reyer Gen. y US /imdkam yovs. 

D. TO, and reye V>2X.yushmahhy-am yov-fe. 

AvTTjs is in Albanian da-dL, which in signification is as 
often dative as genitive. This comes very near the San- 



134 DIALECTS OF M^jljili^N GREECE. 

scrit asydk (gen.), asyaz (dat.)« The nominative is ayo, cL 
Sanscrit lyam, Kere, tovto may be compared with haec-c^^ 
a-tra. 

The possessive pronouns are extremely puzzling, "^pa Ific 
( = aypa ifjirj) seems Straightforward enough ; but when we come 
to ''ATijyovi, of which the genitive is "Atlt rom, we see that the 
possessive pronouns have the peculiarity of taking the case- 
endings as prefixes, instead of suffixes. This same case- 
ending r appears in the possessive pronouns to be accusative^ 
as well as genitive or ablative in force. Is not this so also 
in the Latin personal pronouns fe/e, nosm-ef, vosm-ei? Ex- 
amples in Albanian are, f eXa iir, d^eXcf)6s o-ovy TUr-feXd dd€\(f)S 
o-ov, dde\(p6v (tov. But this is not all : not only are the case- 
endings prefixed, but sometimes, at least, the differentiating 
signs of gender also ; so that nothing remains of the original 
pronoun but a single consonant. Thus ^V = aos, yote = o-?). 
ThatjK^ is a feminine termination we have seen in ayo^ she, 
il we have in mi = ovros. Fore seems moreover to have 
a double feminine termination, if we regard e/xe as = e/x?;. Vona 
is plural, and, so far as I can see, for all genders. 

'Efirjv is T€fX€ ; vfxerepav, Tovyen and Tovi \ ifJid, ijJLLa ] r}fA6T€pos^ 
vp and vve ; rjixerepav, rSv or rove ; rjfierepa, rova ; T}fX€T€pa}V, T(ov. 

Internal changes of the vowel sound also take place, as 

\\x,-aT TraTTjp {jlov, re rt/x-er tov rrarpos /xou, Tepi-aT Trarepa poVo 

When, however, the possessive pronoun is used substantively, 
it has a much simpler form, as 

ylBe re plar lav re riar 



> \ 



navra ra €/xa €L(riv ra era. 

For the oblique cases of o-os, one form used is rdvd and 
rdvds, of which Tavde appears to be the feminine. The 
difference between rdvde and tut seems to be that the one is 
used with a preposition, the other with a verb, as pe TUT-feXd 
(a€ TOV db€\(j)6v (jov in modern Greek), but Dom f^Kivi Tavd, €§€ 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 1 35 

kl fjievT aveyLiKovv ravd, i.e. Ames vicinum iuum etoderis inimicum 
tuum. 

We will conclude this account of the Albanian language 
with a few prepositions and numerals : — 

Me = with, modern Greek /xe and /Lta, ancient Greek jxa, 

fia Tov Ala, 
Upi'i =from, Greek rrapa. 

Hip = through, Latin per, 

Kovvdep = contra. 

Kde = in, Latin indu-, indo-, Greek 'ivho- and e^/ro-. 

M<5e and \ih\ = on, Latin ambi Q)^ Greek dfKpL 

SiVep = super, 

1. v\ f. vu 

2. dii, 

3. rpe, f. rpu 

4. Karep, 

5. 7r€(T€o 

6. yiaorrf. 

7. (jrare (Sanscrit sdpta). 

8. rere. 

9. vavdiT^ 

10. Sere. 

11. vipbehir^, i. e, 64? k^t.X, eTTidsKa. 

12. dupiederL 
20. i^ffer. 

30, Tplderi^ 
40. Karepbere, 
50. TreaeSeVe, &;c. 

100. /cW, Latin centum, 
1000. /it^. 

It is observable here that Latins, Greeks, and Albanians 
count together as far as 10, although the form vavd^r pre- 
sents some difficulty. Afterwards, however, the agreement 



J 36 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 

ceases. Latin and Greek coincide in 11 and 12, but the 
exact coincidence goes no further. Where the ancient 
Greeks said rpetsKatdeKa the Romans said iri-decem. The 
agreement between Latin and Greek is, however, resumed 
in vigintij uKoac = eUovn or feiKovTL ; while in Albanian, 
vl-C^T is plainly a different formation, and seems to be 
compounded of vl-, one, and (er, which must mean a score^ 
whatever its derivation. Afterwards, TfyldcTe, &c. = not rpt-h 
Sere, but rpt x Sere, and SO on. Yet the coincidence is again 
resumed in KLpd = ce/i/um, and ply = ?m7k. The fact is, 
numerals after 10 afford no historical evidence as to the 
independence of different races, though their agreement, 
however occasional, does supply most indubitable proof 
of their having sprung from one stock. 

The same race may have two modes of counting beyond 
10, and one may be more fashionable than the other, or 
both may meet with equal favour. The ancient Greeks 
themselves said deKanevre as well as TrevTeKaibeKa, and the 
modern Greeks say not only dcKanevre^ but deKarpels, Se/ca- 
recraapes, Se/caeTrra, Se/caoKro), benaevvea. In the Teutonic lan- 
guages II and 12 exhibit a similar divergence, while in 
English we say twenty-three, three and twenty, sixty or 
three score. Sec, French, ItaKan, and Spanish count to- 
gether as far as 60, after which they diverge, though only 
to coincide again afterwards. The numerals, therefore^ 
give us no grounds for doubting our original hypothesis, 
that Albanian presents us, in a mutilated shape, with the 
Graeco-Italic language before it had split into Greek and 
Italic. 

With regard to vdvde or vdvder, I question whether we 
have not the same word in the Latin nundinae, -inae being 
simply a termination. With regard to the derivation of 
puvdety I would suggest that as unavimsati in Sanscrit means 
Uss than twenty^ i. e, nineteen^ so unadasa might be another 



DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. i^J 

form for mne, of which avdere or apber might be a contracted 
form. The influence of the u would naturally convert d into 
d, and we should then get civder^ lo, rendered more definite 
in Albanian by the prefix 1^1= i, hence viavder, vavd^r. 

We have already seen that Albanian preserves many of 
the Sanscrit forms which Latin and Greek have lost, and 
we will conclude this rapid sketch with one more ex- 
ample. 

In Sanscrit, the two words anya and ifara are used 
respectively in the sense of 'the one' and 'the other,' 
being combined in the compound anyatara, ' either.' Now 
in Greek we have erepos, and in Latin cae/erus, both of which 
words may contain the same root as z/ara. But in Albanian 
we have both, opposed to each other, in vL-dvi^ 'the one,' 
and Tt'€Tpi, 'the other;' the prefix being in one case the 
indefinite, in the other the definite article. Here, too, we 
find VI actually added to aVt, just as we have supposed it to 
be added to avd^r. 



CHAPTER IX, 



Modern Greek Literature. 



We must distinguish, in the outset, between modern 
Greek literature and the literature of the modern Greeks. 
The name of modern Greek literati is legion, but the 
names of those who wrote anything worthy of record in 
modern Greek before the present century are very few. 
It is with the latter alone that we are at present con- 
cerned. 

The first modern Greek writer was Theodorus Ptocho- 
prodromus, 'the heaven-sent poor forerunner' of modern 
Greek literature, a satirist of no mean power, whose 
happiest verses were extorted by the pangs of hunger. 
A specimen of his style concludes Chapter VII. His date 
is given by Mr. Sophocles as 1143 — 'nSo. 

Almost contemporary with him was Simon Sethos, a 
chronicler, who is the fivst prose writer in modern Greek. 

Next in order comes the 'Book of the Conquest of 
Romania and the Morea,' or To iras ol ^pajKoi cKepdrjo-av tov 
TOTTov TOV Mcopecos, supposed by Buchon (in the second volume 
of his 'Recherches Historiques') to be a translation from a 
French account of the same events. Elissen ably controverts 
this opinion by a comparison of the two works, in which he 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 39 

fully justifies the superior reputation of German over French 
criticism. The ^Book of the Conquest' may be best 
described as a rhyming chronicle, which might deserve the 
name of poor verse were it not so prosaic, or of bad 
prose were it not written in metre. It belongs to the 
foruteenth century. 

To the same period probably belongs the poem entitled 
^ Belthandros and Chrysantza,' a romance of knight-errantry, 
in which we can plainly trace the effects of the cru- 
sades in Greece. The heroes of Greece are henceforth 
knights-errant, but the Greek of the age is so far true 
to himself as to be more susceptible of chivalrous than 
religious enthusiasm. The mistress of his heart is very 
prominent, while Mother Churdi is kept quite in the 
background. The plot of ' Belthandros and Chrysantza' is 
simple but imaginative. The hero is Belthandros (a Graec- 
ism for Bertram), the son of Rhodophilus, king of Romania, 
who has two sons, Bertram and Philarmus, one of whom 
he loves, and the other of whom of course he hates. 
Belthandros, the unfortunate object of his father's dis- 
pleasure, accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after 
heroic exploits performed at the expense and on the per- 
sons of his father's men-at-arms, who are dispatched to bring 
him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of Tarsus. 
Riding by the side of a small stream, he espies a gleam 
of light in the running waters, and follows up the course 
of the rivulet a ten days' journey. It leads him to a magic 
building called the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, 
and surrounded and filled with every imaginable form of 
wonder in the way of automaton birds and beasts of gold, 
reminding us of Vulcan's workmanship. Then follows an 
introduction to the King of the Loves, the owner of the 
enchanted palace, who gives him the task of choosing the 
most beautiful out of forty women. He first selects three, 



140 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 

and having thus equalized the problem to that which Paris 
had solved of old, he proceeds to award the palm to 
Chrysantza, who turns out to be the daughter of the King 
of Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at the 
Court of Rhodophilus reconciles the father, and terminates 
the story with the slaying of the fatted calf. 

The following is an attempt to render the metre and the 
meaning of some of the most beautiful lines in this un- 
equalled poem : — 

* Thus then together journeying, they reached the Turkish border : 
This passed anon, they entered next upon Armenia's frontier; 
And last of all approached the town of Tarsus, and its strong- 
hold. 
And while Belthandros wandered through the country with his 

followers, 
He found a rivulet, and lo ! beheld among its waters 
A sheen as of a falling star that leaves its track in heaven. 
There in the water's midst it gleams, and he in haste pursues it : 
Stream-upwards he betakes him, if perchance he may discover 
Whence erst was born that liquid flame that glitters in the 

streamlet. 
Ten days' full space he wandered on, and when the tenth was 

ended, 
He found a castle large and high, and goodly was the vision, 
Of pure sardonyx well hewn out, most cunningly proportioned. 
And high upon the summit of that fair and shining building, 
In place of catapults were ranged a marvellous assemblage 
Of heads of griffins carved in gold, full curiously fashioned. 
Wrought by a cunning master's hand, with great and wondrous 

wisdom : 
And from their open jaws amain, most direfully resounded 
Furious and terrible and shrill a grimsome noise of roaring; 
And thou wouldst say they moved as though the breath of life 
were in them.' 

The imaginative power and mastery of language which 
the author shows, bespeak a genius of the highest order. 
Like many another genius, he is among the nameless dead. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I4I 

His creative power reminds us sometimes of the ^Divina 
Comedia/ sometimes of the second part of ^ Faust/ Even 
his sesquipedalia verba, or, as the Greeks call them, Xe^fts 
(TxoLvorevehy rather excite our admiration by the boldness and 
the beauty of their composition, than our impatience by their 

length. ^'Po^oKOKKLVos, (rTpoyyvXo[jLop(f)07rTjyovvos, fiOLpoypa(f)r]fJLa, 
(TiDfxaTovpyTjae^, SXocrcofjiaTcoiJLevr] , ovpavo^pofxos, Kpv<poKap>cop,a, how- 
ever they might raise the bile of a Phrynichus, have a power 
of harmony and a perfection of taste for which that poor 
pedant had neither eyes nor ears. 

Did the modern Greek language possess but this single 
Epic, to say that it is destitute of literature were a calumny 
indeed. 

The next writer we shall notice is Emmanuel Gorgilas, 
who forms the bridge between the Byzantine and the Turkish 
period of modern Greek literature. He was a native of 
Rhodes, and lived at the time of Constantinople's fall. 

The following works are attributed to him : — 

1. ALr]yr](TLS eh Tas npa^eis rod Trepi^orjTov (TTpaTT]yov tcov 
'FcofxaLcov fxeyakov BeXicrapiov (i^edoBrj iv Beverta ro) 1554 ^^^ 

^payKL(TKov 'FapLTraT(T€Tov els 4 rofiovs), in which Belisarius ap- 
pears as an almost mythical character, a kind of Alexander 
redivivus, upon whom every kind of possible and impossible 
exploit is fathered. The work is metrical. 

2. To SavariKov rrj^ ^Fodov (aviicboTov iv rfj Hapio'Lavfj )3t/3Xio- 

3. The celebrated Qpijvos rrjs Kcovo-TavrLvoTroXecos, which has 
been compared by its admirers to the Iliad ; whether from 
its length or from its merits, I am unable to say. The latter, 
and fortunately the former also, fall far short of that great 
original. A certain well sustained glow of patriotism, and a 
prophetic yearning of hope, are its only claims to be con- 
sidered in any sense a poem, and even these features are 
not sufficient to redeem it from wearisomeness. For curio- 



14^ MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. | 

sity's sake I will give two short extracts, the one from the 

Qprivos, and the other from the QavanKov rrjs 'Fobov, 

I. 

Top TovpKov av d(pr]Ker€ ttju ttoXlv va KpaTrjcrrjy 
GeXet yap ttolXlv to Sepiov kol OeXcL dvvap,a>(T€i, 
Kai SiXet KaraTrru noXkovs 6 aKvkos ooo-av dpaKOs' 
AoiTTov Ttavv^rjkoraTOL avBevrcs fJLOV p-qyddes, 
"AydiTrjv oKot Kdp.€T€ va ttcltc ^arovs ix^povs (ras, 
Kol Tov aravpov (rrjKaxreTe crrjpddL (tt app^ara eras, 
"Navev eprrpos Kal ^7rLo-(o aas crrjfjiddL ^o-rd Koppid eras' 
Na jSyaXXere rovs dae^els dno ra yoi/iKd cras^ 
Meaa drrb to, crTTiria eras, k diro rot yoviKd cras^ 

II. 

At 7nKpap.os, at avpcpopd nocrove to KaKo poV 

^A<j)r]K€ p€ TOV TecopyiXdv Kal TeSpyi tov vlov pov, 

K' eirtvoVy ttlvq), Kal va ttlco oXovcov ( = oXcov) Tals TTiKpddais* 

Kal dvo Kal Tpia 6p(pavd dirb Kopr^v kcll pavdhes^ 

liaihtd diTo Ta peXrj pov, Kal ajro Tals d^eXcpddes. 

Kal /cXatcD ttcos iyhi^pyvTai prjves Kal e^dopdbes, 

TeroLats (roias) dev SeXovv va diovv (va tScDcrt) aXX* aide va 

yevSovcrLy 
AioTL ScrT€ va XvtttjSovv^ rroXXd va inKpaOovcn, 

One scarcely knows whom most to commiserate, the man 
or the poeto 

In the sixteenth century we have no poet of eminence, 
Jakobos Triboles is a writer of most wretched doggerel 

There were always plenty of preachers, like Cyrillus 
Lucaris, Meletius, &c., but their works have not for the most 
part come down to us. Almost the only examples of 
modern Greek in the sixteenth century consist of letters and 
fragments of speeches, chiefly the utterances of ecclesiastics. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 43 

The great work of the seventeenth century is one which 
is almost unknown : the work of one Chortakes, a Cretan ; 
entitled ' Erophile/ and written in the Cretan dialect. It is a 
tragedy, and opens with a monologue of Charon, the imper- 
sonation of Death, who speaks as follows : — 

H aypia k rj dveXvTTrjTT) k rj crKOTCLvrj dcopid fiov, 
Kai TO dpendv ottov jSacTTcOy kol ravra rd yvfjLvd fxov 
KoKKoka, K rj TToWais ^povTois, k fj do-Tpairais ofiddt, 

Ottov ttjv yrjv dvol^acTL, k e^yrjic dnov top ''ASt;, 
Holos elfjLaL fiova^d rcoi/e^ dL)(cos p^Lkid [XTTopovo-t 
Na (papepoDaovv (Trjfjiepov V 6(rovs /xe o-vvTrjpov(n^, 

^ 4f ^ -K- -Jf -Jf 

'Eyw/iai Kehos to Xolttov air okoi fie pLicrovcri^ 
Kai (TKvKoKdphr) kcll* TV(pX6 k clttovov jxe XaXovcri. 
*E'ya)jLt* aTTOv T^rj ^acriXevs^, T^rj ^finopefxevovs ovXovs, 
Tf7 ttXovo-lovs k dvfjfjLnopovSy rf' d(j)6VTaLs kol t^tj dovXovs, 
T(r] veovs kol t^t] yepoPTas, fiiKpovs kol t0] fxeydXovs, 

T^T) (ppOPLfJLOVS Kol T^T) XcoXoVS, K oXoVS dpOpODTTOVS T^' oXXoVS^ 

Fta/xa, yiap,d 6pt€^ p.ov (pap^ plx^co kol dapaTOPco, 

K* eh TOP dOo^ t^tj plottjs tov9 t^tj -^popovs tovs reXeioj/o). 

Avopco T^r) do^ais kol Tifxals Ta ^pofiaTa pLavpl^co" 

T^rj diKLOo-vpais dtao-KopTrco, kol t^t) (piXLais x^P''C^9 

Tf aypiais Kap^Lois KaTaTTOPO), T^rj Xoyio-fJLOvs dXXdacrco, 

Tf* oXTTides pix^co 's /xta fiepid, kol rf eypoLais^ KaTaTacrcra}'' 

K' eKel TTOv fjii ttoXv 6v[jl6 Ta ^fidTLa jxov ijTpa(pov(TL, 

XoypaLs x^^oOj* dXaKaipais^, Koap^oi ttoXXoI ^ovXoixtl, 

^ /jLovaxd Tcuve, by themselves: so Trore fxav, in my life; p.6vos f^ov, by 
myself; further down Trore tovs : a peculiar modem Greek idiom. 

^ avvTTjpovai, observe, for the more common Traparripovai. 
- ^ T^Ti I3a(n\evs, i. e. tovs ^aaiXefs, contracted for tovs ^aaiXefas. 

^ Tiajjid, yiafjid opTe, as soon as; etymology h' d/xa oPTe (xpovov). 

^ 'A96, the ancient derjp with a different termination. 

^ eyvoiaLS = evvoiai. 

^ dxdfcaipais, Cretan for oXoKXrjpat. Italian and Albanian both offer 



144 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 

liov Tcov EWtjvco 7] jSaaiXcLaLS J ttov rco 'VcofiLwv fj roaais 
UXovcTLaLS Kol fJL7rop€^6fJi€vaLs xofpais y TTOV Too'aLS yvcocrais l 

^ -Sf Jj: -Jf ^ -^ 

^Tco)(o\ o-TO XaKKO KaTOLKovv, j8o7;j3ot fjLe dix^^s^ CTOjjia 
'^vxais ydvfJLvals^ dev ^evpco ttov crrr} yrj XiyaKi x^l^^' 
12 TrXrjcna^^ KaKoppi^iKOL kol yiavra de Ooapovcn 
T^rj fiepaLs ttcos \iyaLVOV(Tt, t^tj xP^^^'^s ^^^ Tzepvovcri ] 
To yjres^^ ididj^r], to TrpoxOes ttXtjo dev dvia-roparai^ 
^TTiSa fxiKpr) TO arjfjiepo (ttcl aKOTdva XoyaTat, 
'2* €uap dvoLyo(T<pakicFfxa^'^ tojv dfxixaTL d7roo'd>vco 
Kai dixcos XvTTTjcn Kapia 770.(7 avOpcono g-kotcovco' 
Ta KoXXr) o-^vvoa, k ofxop(po TTpoo-coiro Se^^ XvTrovfjLm, 

some analogy, e. g. fcXaioj, nXd-fiev, Albanian Kidixovv^ Latin cla-mare^ 
Italian chiamare. 

^ fjie bixcos, the fjie is pleonastic; compare the English without, and 
the vulgar German heard only in London, mitaus, e. g. ' Ich gehe 
aus, mitaus Sie zu mir kommen,' instead of ' ohne dass Sie zu mir kom- 
men.' 

^ ybu/jivais, for yvfjLvais, If this be the oldest form of the word, it 
points to the derivation ySvoj, vulgar modern Greek for kfcdvo}, being, in 
fact, a participial adjective : for the accent, compare de^afxevrj (a reser- 
voir), which is nothing but a participle used as a substantive. With 
ybvcxj for 'kBvoj one may compare yboviros for Kdovnos, i. e. ktovttos — 

KTVTtOS. 

^^ Tr\T)aia = fxd\a, same root as TTi/jLTrXrjfjLL, &c. KafCKoppi^iKoi, ill-fated. 
TO pi^iKo is modern Greek for Fate, generally derived from rischio Italian ; 
but neither the accent, the form, nor the sense, agree with this deriva- 
tion. The idea seems rather to be the same as in Treirpou/jLivov, elp/jLap- 
fjiivr], ' that which is deep fixed like a root in the ground,' pi^a. 

^^ TO \pU, yesterday evening ; formed on the analogy of x^^'^j the root 
being -^€, as in o^e, diroipe, dipifiaOTjs, &c. 

^2 dvoLyoacpdXiaijLa, from dvoiyco and acpaKi^w, i. e. do'cpaXi^w, to make 
fast, hence to shut. 

i^ jrdcra, for TraVra, as -act for -avTi, -ovctl for -ovti, &c. 

^^ §6, for d€v = ov ; either contracted for ovdiv, or the word Bev (neuter 
of dels) used negatively, as is the case in modern Greek with TiwoTe, 
TTOTi, Kaviv, dioKov, and in French with, jamais, du tout, &c. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, I45 

Tovs raTTeivovs ^e Xerjixovcb, tovs aypiovs de (po^ovfxaL. 
Tovs (p€vyovv^^ (prdv oyXrjyopay tovs jue (tjtovv fiaKpaLVCo, 
Kal Si^cioy va jxe Kpa^ovai. (rvx^a t^t) ydpdDVs */x7raiVa). 

•5f 4«- -K- -Jf :^ -K- 

^Ta>xoi T apTrare cfyevyovaij to, (r(j)Lyy€Te TrerovcrL, 

Ta 7r€pfxa^6v€T€ crKopTrovv, ra ktl^€T€ x^^^^^^" 

2a (TTrlSa a^vv rj do^a (ras, to. ttXovtt] aras era (TKOvrj 

^KOp7rov(rr]ve kol xapovrat, koI Tovofid eras \v6vei 

2a ^^ voLTOv fxe to x^P^ ^^^ ypafipevo els irepLyioKi 

^TT] diaKpio-L T^T] OaXacrcras, yrj^'^ ;(d/xat^^ CTTrjp 7ra(rnd\rj. 

His apostrophe to Joannes Murmures, a celebrated lawyer 
and a friend of the poet, is quite in the spirit of Dante or 
of Lucretius : — 

2' ibidXe^a evyepecrTaTe Movppiovp vyfrrjkoTdTe, 
'FrjTOpa V oXais r^* dpeTois kol t^tj Tipais ye/xare, 
Me Tovofxd (Tov tovto pov tov kottov va (tto\l(tco, 
Kai X^P^ ^^^ "^Cl X^P^^^ ^^^ 7r\rj(ra va crov ;^apta-oj. 
Fiarl o(TO (re Ocopco -^rjXoy ere ^Xenco koXXo tocto 
Me (TTrXdyxvos dve^UaKOj Kciperpr) KaXocvvr], 
Kelcrat V Trjv ^7repr}(l)dvr](Ti paKpdv tov Kocrpov Kelvr) 
Trj (TKOTeivrj, ttov de yevva XdjBpay ovde (f)S)s X'^p'^C^'- 
Ma T^LKva povo Ka\ Kairvb tcl Tpiyvpa yepl^ei. 

^^ Tovs (pevyovv, i.e. ovs cpevyovcri, for ot cpevyovai. A curious instance 
of attraction, rare in ancient Greek, from the nominative to the accusa- 
tive. 

16 :5(i = Vai/, i.e. wadv. 

1^ 717, Cretan (also Chian) for rf. 

^^ xdpai, Cretan for the modem x^A*ov, the ancient x^A^a*'- The accent 
need not perplex us, as the reader will perceive the accentuation in Crete 
is .extremely variable and uncertain, and often diverges from the usual 
system. A little further down we have dvepoi. for dvepot. 

*^ T^LKva, a curious corruption and metathesis for Kvl^a. Yivl^a itself, 
however, seems to be a mere onomatopoeic form, like sniff, snuff, 
schnupfen (Germ.), &c., and rf/z^i/a may be the same. 

L 



146 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 

■^ 4f •?(■ -X- -H- 4f 

Vlv ob-qyos T^rj crTparas fJiov, va (pvy(o rov x^Lfiooi'a 
Tf dv€fxiKals^ K COS TTeSvfxct) v dpct^a) aro Xifjucoua, 
Tiarl ocrais SeKovv rapaxnis, k dvefiot va yepdovcrt, 
K oaa (j^ovo-Kcacrovv KvjJLara, aro ISpd^os deu jjuropovcn 
ITore Tovs va jie pL^ovcn, y aXXotco? va fxe ^T^fjuaxrov, 
QcopicovTas fJLov o)s "Kcrrpo p,ov \afJLTrp6 to TrpocrcoTro (rov, 
Kav dvai Kdnotcorrjcra'^^ x^P^'^H'^ ^^ ^^^ Soxro), 
' A.^LO, KaScos irvxatvc, AcaXa^^ dev elvai t6(to^ 
T0) Tvx^s dos TO (pTaLorifJio, koxI' tov SeXrjfjidTOV' 
Ftari \j/r}Xa\s t^tj TreOvfitals Trdo-a Kaipbv eKpaTov, 
Ma Kelvrj x^P-^^ "^C '^PP^^^i K^^f^ t^ (pT€pd ttov crcova 
'2' opos va fi dvai^ddovG-i sj/rjXo ttov t ^EXiKcova 
Mov KOKJr ovTCL dpxr]o-acn Ka\ ;^a/;tr;Xo7r6ro{}cra, 
K77 ope^L fjL aTTOfji^Lve fiovo, aav irpodTas TrXovo'a. 

KdvTLS TCI 6dpp€L€ K €\7n^€, K €^€tXV€j K €Ta(TCr€ fJbOV, 

Ketff T^ ovpavovs avxvoTaTa to vovv dvai^a^e /xou, 
Mov ktl^cl TTvpyovs 'o-To yiaXo Trep^oXia (ttov depa 
K 6, Ti TTjv vvKTa iJL€pLfJLva), ;(ai/erat tyjv rjfxepa. 

The following is an almost literal translation, in which, 
however, I have taken the liberty of shortening the metre by 
one syllable, except in one or two cases :- — 

* My visage fierce and pitiless, my dark and ghastly stare ; 
The sickle which I carry; my fleshless bones and bare; 
The lightning, with the thunder claps that shake the air around, 
Forth bursting from the jaws of hell, and rending all the ground, 
These things may tell you who I am ; it needs no words of mine : 
Whoso but looks on me to-day, my name may soon divine. 

^^ aTrofcoTTjo'a = €t\t]v : €T6Xjji7]G'a, cf. fcoTeoj, KOTiofjiai, kotos. The 
notions of wrath and daring are not far removed from each other. 
Compare ^ivos with its cognate words, and kindred varieties of mean- 
ing : fJLCvT in Albanian means hatred. 

^* Ka\d = rdxcii 'i(TOJs : so dyfcaXd, dv Kokd = d /cat : cf. German wol, 
' perhaps ; ' ohwol, ' although.' 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I47 

Yes, I am he whom all men hate, and call with one consent 
Hound-hearted, blind, and pitiless, whose soul can ne'er relent. 
I spare nor kings, nor potentates, the mighty of the earth. 
The master and the slave alike ; in plenty or in dearth ; 
The young, the old, the great, the small, the simple and the 

wise, 
Whene'er I please I lay them low, never again to rise. 
Even in the flower of their youth their fleeting years I number ; 
Glory and praise and fame I whelm in dark eternal slumber; 
The memory of righteous deeds swift to the winds I scatter; 
The closest bonds that friendship knits, I sunder and I shatter ; 
The fiercest heart I quickly tame, sage counsels I confound ; 
Fair hopes I bhght, and lofty thoughts lay even with the 

ground. 
And wheresoe'er my eyes are turned with fell destructive power, 
Whole countries sink, whole worlds decay, and vanish in an hour. 
Where is the sovereignty of Greece ; where is the wealth of 

Rome ; 
Of mighty realms whilome the nurse, of wit the chosen home? 

' How poor they dwell within the tomb, the dumb and voiceless 

dead, 
In some small corner of the earth, a sod above their head. 
Mere naked shades ! Thrice wretched men ! why do they not 

behold 
How day is dwindling after day, how soon their years are told? 
Yestreen is passed, the day before has left no trace in sight; 
To-day is reckoned but a span in yonder realms of night. 
Swift as the twinkling of an eye, I come and drag away 
My victim to the grave, and all without compassion slay. 
Beauty I quench, nor lovely face can draw from me a tear ; 
To the meek I show no mercy, and the proud I do not fear. 
WTio shun me, them I overtake; who seek me, them I fly: 
Unbidden at the wedding feast a frequent guest am I. 
Wretches ! what ye would snatch escapes, and flies while scarce 

embraced ; 
Your gathered wealth is scattered soon, and what ye build effaced; 
Your glory in a moment quenched, your riches like the dust 
Dispersed and gone; quick perishes the name for which ye lust; 
Left to the mercy of the sea, as 'twere with idle hand 
Inscribed upon the sounding shore, or in the drifting sand.' 

L 2 



148 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

' Thee have I chosen, Murmures, noblest and worthiest, 
Of orators most skilled and famed, of virtuous men the best ; 
Thee have I chosen, that thy name my labours might adorn. 
And to thy ears full echo of thy own deserts be borne. 
For howsoe'er exalted, thou dost rise before my view. 
By so much do I know thee kind, and good and patient too. 
Far, far art thou from haughty mien, the proud world's atmo- 
sphere. 
That gloom from whence no warmth is born, nor light is sent to 

cheer, 
But smoke and vapour dank and thick fill all the region drear. 
Be thou the guide of all my way, that I may 'scape the blast 
Of wintry storm, and safely reach the longed-for bourne at last. 
Let tempest rage, let winds arise, let billows roar and swell. 
Yet while I keep before my eyes, that face I love so well, 
My one, my guiding star, no rocks shall ever work me harm ; 
No breakers then shall touch me, nor stormy waves alarm. 
But if the greeting which I bring shall haply chance to be 
More worthy of my rash resolve than it is worthy thee. 
Oh, blame my fortune for the fault, and not my will, I pray. 
My heart would ever fain be borne on soaring wings away. 
But Fortune casts it to the ground, and clips the pinions spread 
To raise me high as Helicon to some tall mountain's head; 
Even as they begin their flight and skim above the ground ; 
Barren desire remains, as when I first was outward bound. 
And now in place of all she weened and hoped and showed and 

taught. 
Moving my soul to lofty flight upon the wings of thought, 
She builds me castles in the sand, and gardens in the air; 
And what by night I meditate, day finds no longer there.' 

This last line seems suggested by the Sophoclean verse — 

The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus Scuphos, 
born in Cydon in Crete, and educated in Italy, in 1669 pro- 
fessor at the Greek school in Venice, author of a work on 
Rhetoric 168 1, from which we quote the following example 
to show how completely the rhetoric of the ancients con- 
tinues to live in the oratory of modern Greece :— 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 749 

Me TO O'x^fJ'Ci Trj9 ^e-qaecos SeXco TrapaKoXecret tov iXcvSepcorrjv rov 
KocrfJLOv XptdTov, va eXevOepaxri] fiiav <j)opav to iXXrjj/LKov yevos diro 
TY]V dovXclav Tcov ^Ayaprjvcov, Kal cltto tcls x^lpas tov *0T0iiavLK0v 
BpLapecos. ^6dv€L, KpLTci diKataiTaTc, (f)ddv€L ! "Ecoy Trore ol Tpto-dBXiOL 
'*'EXXr)V€s e^ovai va cvpLcrKcovTaL et? rot deafid. ttJs SouXe/a?, kol fxe 
vTT€pr)(j)avov noda vd tovs TraTrj tov Xaifiov 6 ^dp(3apos OpdKrjs * €C09 
TTOTe yevos too'ov evdo^ov kol cvyeviKov vd npoo'Kvva errdva) els /3ao"tXt- 
Kov Opovov €va ciSeov TOvKovTrdvL, kol fj xa)paLs €K€LvaLS els tols oirolaLS 
dvaTcXkei, 6 opaTos 17X10?, kol els dvSpconivrjv fxopcjyrjv dveTeCkas Ka\ 
i(Tv 6 dopaTOSy dnb rjfJLLO-v (peyydpi vd ^acrtkevcovTaL I 'A, €vSvfxr}(roVf 
(T€ TrapaKoXci), ttcos eiaai o^f' p-ovov KpLTrjSy dprj kol TraTrjpj kol 7ra)s 
Trai^eveis, dp,r) dev OavaToveis tu TeKva aov' oSev av icrcos- kcil rj dfiap- 
TLais TCdv *EXX^z/6)i/ €7rapaKLvr](Tav ttjv hiKaiav opyqv aov, av \(tcds kol 
€LS TTJV Kdpivov TVS Idlas TCOV dvojjLLas crou €-)(aKK€vcrav Ta da-r poire- 
XeKta, did vd tovs d(l)avL(T7]s otto to irpoacoTTOv ttJs olKOLfjLevrjs^ eo-v 
OTTOv elaai oXos evcnrXayxvia^ avyx^o prjcrai Ka\ o-^vo-ai eKelva els to 
TveXayos Trjs dnetpov aov eXerip.o(Jvvr]s, ^EvSvp,T]croVy BedvSpcoTre 
*lr)o-ov, TTCOS TO eXXrjvLKov yevos ecrTaOrj to irpcoTOV^ ottov dvoi^e Ta\s 
dyKoXais, 8id vd de^drj to Belov crov evayyeXXiov' to 77pa)Tov ottov 
eppL^e ^apal Ta e'lbcoXa, Ka\ Kpefxdpevov els eva ^vXov ere enpocrKv- 
VTjcrev a>s SeoV to irpcoTOVy ottov avTidTdSr) tcov Tvpdvvcov, ottov fie 
Tocra Kal Tocra ^dcrava eyvpevav vd ^eppi^cocrovv diTo tov Koapov ttjv 
TTiCTTiv, Kca dno TOLS Kap^tais tcov ■^(pKTTLavcov TO Selov crov ovop,a' 
fte TOVS IbpSiTas tcov ^EXX-qvcov rjv^ave^ XpLO-Te pov, els oXrjv ttjv oIkov^ 
pLevTjv T] eKKX-qo-la crov' ol ^^EXXr]ves ttjv enXovTrjo-av p,e tovs 6r](ravpovs 
TTJS (TQC^las^ TOVTOC Kal pe TT]v yXcjcorav, Kal pe tov KdXap,ov, pe ttjv 
Iblav (corjv ttjv dia(pevTeva-av \defenderunt\ Tpe^ovTes /xe cmeipov 
peyaXoyj/vxiCLV Kal els Tals (pvXaKals, Kal els Tals p-da-TiyaiSy Kal els 
TOVS Tpoxovs Kal els Tals e^opiatSy Kal els Tals (pXoyais Kal els Tals 
TTLCTcraiSy povov hid vd cr^vaovv ttjv TrXdvrjV, did vd ^aTTXcoo-ovv ttjv 
TTLCTTLVy hid vd (Te K-qpv^ovv OedvBpcoTTOV, Kal bid vd Xdp,\j/i] ottov Xdp^ 
TTet 6 tJXlos, tov (TTavpov T) do^a Kal to pvcTT-qpiov' o6ev, cos ev- 
(TTrXayxyoSy /xe Tr]v Se'Urjv crov TTavTodwap-iav Kdp,e vd (pvyovv tov 
(vyov TeToias fiap^apLKrjs alxP'oXcocrlas' ©P (piXobcopos Kal ttXovctio^ 



T50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 

7rdpo)(OS avTairodoTriSj dvocyovras tovs Orjcravpovs rcop Beicitv (tov xapi- 
rcov, vyf/coaaL ttoKlv (Is rrjv irpoT^pav do^av to yivos, Koi^ dirh ttjp 
KOTTplav, €i9 Tr]v OTTOLav KaSeraij dos tov to crKrJTTTpov koX to ^acr'i- 
\€Lov. Na), ai TrapaKaXco /jlci to x^^P^ eKelvo, ottov €(f)€pe ttjv x^P^^ 

els TOP KOCTfJLOP' pCL TTjP delaP (TOV €K€lPr}P ipadpKCOO'tP, els TTjP OTTOLaP 

oPTas Qeos, iyivrjKes apOpoonos, 6ia pa (papfjs pe tovs dpOpcdiTovs (ptXdp- 
6pco7ros' pa to ^dTTTLO-fxa, ottov pas €TrXvP€ utto ttjp apapTiap' pa top 
Q-Tavpop ottov pas cipot^e top TTapddetcrop, pa top BdpaTOP ottgv pas 
^'dcDK€ Tr)P ^ooTjP, Ka\ pa ttjp epdo^op €K€LP7]p eyepaip, ottov pas dpi^aae 
us TCI ovpdpia. Ka\ av Xaoys Kai rj cbcopais TovTais dep ae TrapaKivovcnp 
(Is orTr\dyxi''os, as (re rrapaKiprjo-ovp to. daKpva, ottov pov Tpixovp aTTo to. 
oppaTa, Ka\ iap hep <p6dpovp Ka\ TavTa, rj (pcopals, fj TTapaKaXeaais Tap 
dylodP croVy ottov otto oka to. pipr] ttjs TpiaaOXlas 'EXXaSof cj)oipd^ovat. 
^copd^ei aTTo tyjp Kpr]Tr]P 6 'ApdpeaSy Ka\ ae TTapaKokel pa i^oXoOpevarjs 
TOVS ^ AyapT]Povs Xvkovs qtt* e/cat-o to BacriXeiop, els to ottoIqp cttol- 
pape TTjs ;^^iO'Tcoz/Ujuou aov TTOtpprjs to. TTpojBaTa' (pcopd^ei otto ttjp 
UoXlp epas XpvaoaTopos, Ka\ (re rrapaKoXel va prjp KvpieveTat aTTo tovs 
ixOpovs TOV Ylov eKeiPT] rj x^P^^ ottov piap (popdp dcpLepcodr] Trjs Mt]- 
Tpos Ka\ Uapdepov fpcopd^et rj AlKaTepipa, Ka\ belxvoPTa aov top Tpo~ 
Xop, els TOP oTTolop €papTvpr](jey ae TTapaKoXel 6 Tpoxos ttoXl pd yvpLcr) 
Trjs Tvx^s hid TTJP ^AXe^dpdpetap' (jycopa^ovaip ol 'lypaTioi aTTO ttjp 

^APTLOX^taP, ol HoXvKapTTOL aTTO TYjP 2pVpP7)Py OL Aiopvaiot aTTO Tds 

^A6r]vas, ol 'ETTVpihcopes utto ttjp KvTTpop, Ka\ delx^'OPTas cov tovs 
XeopTas OTTOV tovs e^eaxs-o'cip^ Ta)s (pXoyats ottov tovs eKavo^ap, 
Ta aldepa ottov tovs eOepLcrap, eXTTL^ovat otto ttjp aKpap aov 
evcTTTXayxvlap tS)p eXXrjPiKO)P TioXecop Kal oXr]s Trjs ^EXXddos ttjp 
aTToXvTpcadiP, 

Vincentius Kornaros, author of a popular poem in the 
Cretan dialect, entitled ^ Erotocritus/ is generally reckoned 
as an author of the eighteenth century, for his work was first 
published at Venice in 1756. It appears, however, that he 
was born in Sitia in Crete in the year 1620. The opening 
lines of his ' Erotocritus' are well worth quoting > — 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 151 

Tov kvkXov to. yvpiafxara nov dvaL[3oKaraL^aLVovv, 

Kal Tov Tpoxov TT vopais ^//TyXa, k copais ara jBddr] nrjaivovv, 

Kai TOV Kaipov ra TrpdyfxaTa^ ttov dvairavpio SeV exovv 

Ma (TTO KoXb Kels ro KaKo TreptTrarovv koI Tpe)(ovv. 

Kat roov dpfxarcov 77 rapa^als, at XPV'^^^^ i^^f- ^d ^dprj, 

Tov epcoTOs 11 efjiTTopeaes kol tiJs (ptKids r) x^P^> 

KvTCLva fx €KLvr]o-aaL rrjv arjixepov TjjjLepav 

N' dvadrj^aXco kol vairo) rd Kap^av kol rd (j)€pav. 

' The ups and downs of fortune's wheel, whose ceaseless circling 

motion 
Now scales the heights of heaven above, now sounds the depths 

of ocean, 
With all the changing things of time, whose current resting never, 
For worse, for better, fast or slow, is stealing on for ever : 
The troublous din of armed hosts, war's train of want and sadness, 
The ways and means_of desperate love, the charm of friendship's 

gladness : 
These things have moved me to recount, and publish as I may. 
The fortunes and the deeds of men while it is called to-day.' 

In the eighteenth century we are met by the names of 
Kosmas the Aetolian, an educational and religious mission- 
ary, who founded schools throughout the length and breadth 
of Greece, and Rhegas of Pherae, the great forerunner of 
Greek independence. Countenanced by Pasbanoglus, the 
Bey of Venidi, whose friendship he had gained by saving his 
life when threatened by Mavrogenes, governor of Wallachia, 
he did all he could to incite the Greeks to rebellion, and 
addressed appeals to the European Courts to obtain a 
promise of their assistance in case of insurrection. He 
was finally betrayed to the Turks at Belgrade by the 
Austrian Government, and put to death by them on the 
spot. His two war-songs, beginning A^vre TratSe? ro)v 'EXX77- 

vcov and '^y 7t6t€ TraXXrjKdpLa vd ^ovp€v Vra arevdj contributed 

in no small degree to fire the Greeks with that enthusiasm 



152 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

for liberty which soon resulted in the insurrection : but 
though full of spirit and fervour, they are remarkably want- 
ing in a sense of poetic fitness, and abound with sudden 
bursts of prosaic bathos which destroy in great measure 
their effect : e. g., — 

'O vofios eras Trpodrd^^L 
Na IBaXere (pcoTia 
Na Kayj/^T€ Tr}v apfiaha 
Tov KaTTLTav-Traaa. (!) 

Rhegas is honourably distinguished, among the many 
glorious patriots of modern Greece, as being the only 
one who seemed to understand that the faith of Islam 
was entitled to any respect. Religious bigotry mars 
the patriotism of almost every other Greek, and of the 
larger number of Philhellenes with whom I have come in 
contact. 

In illustration of Rhegas' religious tolerance I quote 
Perrhaebus, who represents him as thus addressing Pas- 
banoglus : — 

^Eav eyo), /Ser;, eawcra tyjv (co-qy crov airo tov Odvarov^ tovto tjto 
XP^^s poVj dioTL do^d^co OTL ivas Qebs eTrXaorev okov tov KOGfjiov^ 
a)(rT€ clfxeOa TrXdapara kol T€Kva ivos rrarpos, kol iTTOfjLevcos ddeXcpor 
(f)epco ccts TrapddeLyfia to i^rjs' oTav els TraTTjp yewtjar] KaO^ vnoBeaiv 
TToWovs VLOvs, KOL 6 p.€v €^ civTcov y^vj] dcpjSLarjs, ahXos TTpayfxaT€v~ 
Trjs, aXkos '^(OjjLOTToaXrjs, Kal aWoL fieTax^iptdSiJcxTtv aXka iirayyek- 
fjaTtty bvvavTai ovtol vdpvrjdcocn tov iraTepa tcov, kol ttjv dhe\(^ocrvvriv 
TCDV, €V€Ka TTjs dtacpopds TOiv iiTayyikjjidTCiiV ; ^iKmovvTai cipa ivconiov 
tov Oeoi) bia tovto vet d7roo-Tp6(j)€TaL kol KaTaTpexj} o els tov aWov, 
iv(d 6 TraTTjp avTcbv dyana oXovs iirLO-qs ; ^Eciv av Kavxaaai on t) 
^OdcofjiavLKrj TrlaTis elvai KaXXiTepa d<^* oXas, Ka\ c-yo) ndXtv (ppovco 
OTi T) ibiKT] pov v7V€ppaLV€L oXas, KaTct TOVTO acj^dXXopev Kal ol dvo 
(f>LXov€LKovvT€s, dioTi 6 0fo>, COS KOLVos TTaTYjpy pds diaTdTT€l vct fjpeda 
elXiKpLvels, ^LKaioL, (jyiXdvOpcoTTOiy Ka\ vd dyarrcopev tovs VTrrjKoovs, 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. T53 

KCLL va jjir) KaTabiKd((i)iJL€v avrovs dvoficos cos to. aXoya (coa, Ka6* oaov 
be d(f)opa els to. SprjcrKevTiKa^ rjfjLels dev e^ofxev i^ovcrlav va e^erd- 
C(JL>fJL€v Koi bLa(j)LXov€LKa)fxev o(Ta dvijKovu els rov Qeov' rifiels ovre 
e'ldofjiev^ ovre rjKovcrafJiev, ovre els Kavev ^ifSXlov evpofxev yeypafipcevov, 
on 6 Qeos eTraldevae rov belva dion rjro TovpKOs^ t] tov delva bcori 
rjro )(pL(TTLav6sy rj rov delva ^lotl rjro rjXioo'eXTjvoXdTprjs k.t.X. jSKe- 
TTOjxev ofjLcos Ka\ aKovopev, kcll els rd ^ilBXla evplo'Kopev yeypafxpevov, 
on 6 Qeos eTraidevcre kol Trmhevei ndvTore rovs rvpavvovvras to 
irKdcrpa tov^ tovs dbe\cj)ovs tcov. 

Speaking of the Sultan he uses the remarkable expression, 

e^eKkive ajro tov bpopov tov Oeov^ kol (aS if Synonymous) tqs 
evToXds TOV KopavLov. 

That we may see side by side with this religious large- 
heartedness its natural counterpart, a deadly intolerance of 
tyranny, we will here^give the oath which was administered 
by Rhegas to all his confederates : — 

'i2 jSaaiXev tov Kocrpov, opKi^opat els ere, 
'^TYjv yvoaprjv tcov Tvpdvv(ov vd prjv eXSco ttote' 
Mr]Te vd tovs dov\evo-co, prjTe vd nXavedio, 
'Els Td Ta^lpaTa tcov vd prj napadoBco' 
Evoacp ^co *s TOV Kocrpov, 6 povos pov ckottos 
Tov vd TOVS d<pavLO-co vd rjvnt CTTaBepos' 
Ulcttos els TTjv iraTpiba o-vvTpl^co tov C'^^yov, 
Kt d^aypLc-TOs vd (tjctcd diTO tov aTpaT-qyov. 
K dv Trapa^co tov opKov, v dciTpd-^r] 6 ovpavos, 
Kat vd pe KaTaKavcrrj^ vd yev wtrai/ Kairvos. 

In 1777 was born at Larissa, in Thessaly, Constantine 
Cumas, author of a great number of geographical, mathe- 
matical, and philosophical works : for the sake of its 
Platonic spirit I give the following extract : — 

AX\ eivai^ irpos Atoy, (ppovipos TeKTcov octtls dyopd^ei (TKeirapviov 
KCLL TTpiovLov Td oTTola epTTobl^ovTaL czTTo Tr]v ^pvcrcocnv KOL TOVS dXXovs 



154 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

CTToktcTfiovs va eKTrXrjpoicrcocn ra \dia avrcav ^pyciy fjyovv to ev va 
TveXeKa, to de CTcpov va irpiovi^rj ; cLTrapaKkaKTa Trdo-x^h ^o/xt^o), octtls 
dia va o-toXlo-j] ttjv yXatccrav fxe yevLKas clttoXvtovs K.ai doTiKas kol 
;^a)pis' dvdyKTjv Xe^eis dcrvveiOlcrTovs, KLvdvvevet, pa ttjv KaTaarTrjar] 
dKaTdXrjTTTOv els tovs dKovovTas ^ dvayivaxTKOVTas. 

The greatest name that appears at the end of the 
eighteenth century is that of Adamantios Coraes, the great 
patriot and iinguistic reformer, and one of the most 
celebrated literati of Europe. 

It is quite a mistake to suppose that Coraes produced 
any revolution in the language of modern Greece, or that 
it is an artificial dialect resuscitated from the grave. The 
modern Greek of newspapers, novels, sermons, &c., is not 
half so artificial or pedantic as the writings of the Atticists 
of the paracme, or even as the Greek of Chrysostom and 
other fathers of the Eastern Church. All that Coraes did 
was to set an example to his countrymen in regard to style 
and the choice of words, which they were not slow to follow. 
His reform was a very simple one : he proposed to use the 
classical terminations, wherever these were not altogether 
obsolete, in preference to those which prevailed in the 
mouths of the common people; and in addition to this, 
to banish as far as possible all the foreign words which 
had crept into the language, and substitute Greek words, 
often new compounds, in their place. 

Coraes was born in Smyrna on April 27, 1748, studied 
in Amsterdam for six years, and for another six in France, 
at Montpellier, where he received the degree of Doctor of 
Medicine. In 1788 he came to Paris, and was there during 
the Revolution. Here he spent the greater part of his Hfe. 
Here he wrote letters to his countrymen, encouraging them 
in the struggle for freedom, to which Rhegas was already 
instigating them ; and here he pursued those literary 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 155 

Studies which have established his fame as an European 
scholar. 

His published works are as follows : — 

La Medecine Clinique. Montpellier, 1787 {ficTdcj^pacns 

€K Tov yepfxavLKOv tov Selle). 

Introduction a Tetude de la Nature et de la Medecine. 
Ibid. 

Catechisme Orthodoxe Russe (from the German of 
Plato, Archbishop of Moscow). 

Vade-mecum du Medecin. Montpellier (from the Eng- 
lish). 

Esquisse d'une Histoire de la Medecine. Paris, 1767 
(from the EngHsh). 

Pyretologiae Synopsis. Montpellier, 1786. 

^AdeXcpLKT) dtdaa-KaXla, an answer to UaTpiKT] diKacrKaXiaj a 

forgery of the Turkish Government, published under 
the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for 
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of 
the Greek subjects of the Porte. 

Les Caracteres de Theophraste. 1799. 

Traite d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux et des lieux. 
Paris, 1806. 

Ibid., second edition, with Greek Title. 18 16. 

"BeKKapLov 7T€p\ ddLKrjjjLaTCdV kol ttolvcov. Paris, 1802, 1823. 

'2aXm(Tfia TroXejjLLaTTjpLov. Paris, 1 803. (On the death of 

Rhegas.) 
'HXiodcopov AWtoTTiKa ^L^Xta deKa. Paris, 1 804. In two 

volumes. 

Lettre du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des 

Atheniens, dont parle Dinarque dans la harangue 

contre Demosthenes. 

Aiokoyos ^vo TpaLKccv kutolkcop rrjS Beverias, 1805. ^"^ ^^ 

'Ydpa, 1825. 
IlpodpOfJLOs 'EXXr]viKi]S ^L^XLo6r]Kr]s. 1809-1827. 



156 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

'eWtjvlkt] l3L^\Lo0r)Kr}. Paris, 1807-1835. 15 vols, (con- 
sisting of editions of classical authors, with notes). 

JJdpepya'EW, ^iPXwdrjKrjs. 1809-1827. 9 vols. 
'iXtaSos" pa-^odblai A. 1811— 1820. 

AiarpL^T} avTocrx^^ios nepl rod TreptlBorjTov boyfiaros tcov o-kctt- 
TLKwv (j^iKocrocpcov Nd/ica koXov, Nd/iO) kukov. 

''KraKTa, Paris, 181 8- 1825. 2 vols. 

2vv€K^r)fjL0S UpaTLKos. 1 83 1. 
'2vvo'\j/is lepas KaTr])(r](T€a)s. 
AvTo^Loypacj) la. 1 8 3 3 . 

Besides numberiess articles in the ^ Logios Hermes,' a Greek 
periodical published in Vienna, on philological and political 
subjects. 

On his death he left his library and MSS. to the Gym- 
nasium at Chios, the birthplace of his ancestors. His 
unpublished works are more numerous, if not more volumi- 
nous, than those which have been given to the world. 
Besides this, the margins of many of his books are crowded 
with notes in his handwriting. 

Few countries, none certainly save Germany, can show 
such a literary Hercules as Adamantios Coraes, the second 
Leo Allatius of Greece. Would that some enterprising 
compatriot would undertake the complete publication of 
all his works. 

As contemporaries of Coraes we may mention, out of 
many literary men of no mean deserts, Constantine Oeko- 
nomos, whose turgid style formed as striking a contrast to 
the simphcity of Coraes as did, on the other hand, the 
abandoned vernacular of Jakobos Rhizos Nerulos, the 
unsparing satirist of the ' Logios Hermes ' and its promul- 
gators. 

I give three short extracts to illustrate the above remark, 
taken respectively from the Avro^ioypacfyLa of Coraes, the 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 157 

treatise nept 7rpo(l)opas of Oekonomos, and the KopaKio-TLKa, a 
satirical comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say the 
KopaKes are the follDwers of Coraes : — 

''OcTTLS IcTTopel Tov IStov ^Lov ;(peQ)o-r€t va (rrjfxeLoxrTj Koi ra Karop- 
Bd)fxaTa KOL to. dfJLapTr]fxaTa rrjs C^rjs tov, fie Tocrrjv aKpl^eiav loorrc 
jxr]T€ ra irpoiTa va fjLcyaXvvr], prjTe ra devrepa va (rp.iKpvvrj ^ va crtcoTra 
7ravTd7ra(rL' Trpdy\xa dvaKok(DTaTOV 6ta rrjv €fjL(f)VTov els oXovs rjfids 
(jyikavTiav, "^Octtls dfjLCJ)L^aXk€L irepl tovtov, as Kafirj rrjv irclpav vd 
X^P^^U ^^o P'OVov (TTLxovs TTjs jStoypacfiLas tov /cat ^eXei KaraXd/3et 
Tr}V dvaKoKlav, — Coraes, AvToj3ioypa(pLa. 

To 7T€p\ yvrjacas tcov iWrjvLKuiv ypapfjidrcov 7rpo(j)opds irokvKpoTOV 
Trpo^XrjjjLa irpb rplcov rjdrj aldovcov els ttjv EvpcoTrrjv dva(pveVf VTrrjp^e 
TToWaKis els TToXXovs TToXkoiv Ka\ p.eyd\cov crv^rjTrjo-ecov vTToOecns, — 
Oekonomos^ Ilep\ 7rpo(popds. 

The studied rhythm and inflated style is worthy of a 
Prodikus. 

EtVat dvo ;!^pwta rcopa orrov 6 narepas pov appcDcrrel qtt' ev aKKo- 
KOTO irdOos TO vd 6p,L\^ KopaKLCTLKa, Ka\ dXKo dev Kdp,veL irapd vd 
dKoki^r] Xe^iKd, vd TrXaTTTj Xe^ais dvrjKovcrTaLS ica\ irapd^evaLSy vd 
bia^d^i] KciTi dLa^oX6)(apra Tvircopeva, ottov rd 6vop,d^ovv Aoyiov 
Epprj Ka\ vd ypd(j)r) Kal vd XaXfj pid yXcoo'aa, ottov ttjv drjpiovpyel, 
6 Idios, Tt vd Kap^co ; yid vd tov vnoxpeotaco, jBid^co tov eavTov 
p,ov vd p.d6(o avTals Tals drjdeaTaTats (pXvapias, Ka\ /x' oXov ottov 
dev yvpva rj yXcoo-o'd pov V avrd rd Karapapeva KopaKLcrTiKa, 
fJL oXov TOVTO, eTTetdr) kol rd XaTpevei, ^id^opiaL Keyoi vd tov 
opiXo) TT) yXcoacrd tov, Ka\ els KaOe Xe^i ^diKrjTov ottov rjOeXa TTpo- 
(jyepec, pe dlbet ttjv ev^^ tov. — Nerulos, KopaKicrriKd. 

- Modern Greece has produced but few authoresses : of 
these Angelica Palle, chiefly known by her ode on the 
^ Death of Lord Byron/ which I shall here quote, belongs to 
the beginning of the nineteenth century. 



J 58 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

I. 

TOVS XajJLTTpOVS VjJLVOVS T7]S VLKTJS d(pLV(OV 

K\av6iJLa>u rjx^t' r^pcooav 6 cTpaTos' 

IlLKpms \v7r0vvT at yf/vxal tcov ^EWtjvcov, ^ 

T' cLKovei fxaKpoSev kol ^atp^i o i-)(6p6s, 

2. 
O (plXos ^XSe' ttXtjv p^oXis rov sl^ov 

^KaTTTOVV K\aL0VT€9 TOP Tacpov aVTOV, 

Idov TO reXos ivdo^cov iXTrldoiv, 
Kal TO TpOTvaiov SavaTOV aKX-qpov, 

'HX^e va ifXTTvevo-rj ©y aXXos TvpTolos 
El? Kade aTTjdos TToXefjLcov 6pjjL7]v' 
HXrjV^ (p€v, 6 Bdpdos iXTflcras ixaTaL(OS 
Idov p€V€L els alcoviov ctcoTrrjv, 

4- 

*Qs bivhpov K€It on eKoafJiet peydXcos 

Ttjv Kopvcprjv fJLOvaiKOv Hapvacrcrov' 

"Nvv irpb TTobcov (p6eLpovad tov to kolXXos 

JJvorj TO epptyj/ dvefiov (T<po8pov 

5- 

EXXas 1 iav to acop^a tov rj AyyXia 
Na (p€pr] els pvrjpa (r]Ta iraTpiKov' 
EtTre, Movo-QdV qd prjTepa yXvKela, 
'Elvat TeKvov pov 6 vlos tcop Movacov, 
6. 

KaTa(ppovcov tg>v ipcDTCov tovs 6pr]VOV9, 

"i^hovris prjV aKovcov ttjv <j)(0V7]V, 

E^TjTei edcb rjpcocov tovs KLubvvovSf 
Tdcpov as exu rjpoocov '$• ttjv yrjv, 

Angelica Palle compares very favourably indeed with Felicia 
Hemans. 

The metre is one peculiarly liable to run into jingle, from 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I59 

which it is only preserved by the retarding eflfect of a 
judicious irregularity in the word accent, and the frequent 
substitution of single syllables lengthened by rovr] for the 
trochees which form the first part of the dactyls. 

The great lyrical poet of Greece is, however, Athanasios 
Christopulos, who was born at Kastoria, in Macedonia, in 
1772, and who died in Moldavia, where he held the office of 
judge, in 1847. He is sometimes called the modern 
Anacreon, but is too original a poet to need any such 
metonym. Unfortunately, his undoubted genius was con- 
secrated chiefly to the glory of the wine-bottle, yet he wrote 
some love-songs of exquisite tenderness and beauty, which 
have been copied without acknowledgment by various 
modern poets. Consciously or unconsciously, the ^ Night- 
ingale ' of Christopulos is certainly at the foundation of the 
' Svv^allow ' of Tennyson. Inasmuch as the nightingale 
sings, and the swallow only twitters, I confess I prefer the 
Greek to the English poet in this particular case. 

For four of the following examples I am indebted to 
C. C. Felton's ' Selections from Modern Greek Writers.' 

OLD AGE. 

Na Tf] Tplx^s (Tov apx^i^ovVy 
AOavd(TL€ V dcTTrpL^ovv ! 

Na daKpvcov iirox'^ I 
Na ere Xeyet kol 6 "Epcos, 
$iXe Trkeov elcraL yipos, 

2 TO i^rjs KoXr) "^vx^* 
Trj veoTrjra ;j^atpeVa, 
Ta (jyikrjiJiaT a<fir](T€ ra, 

Sexacre ra napevdvs, 
Kal dpxLva /xe vyeia 
Ta TTLKpa TO. yepareia 

2 TO i^rjs va to, yevBfjs. 



l6o MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Aev ae indvovv ra XovXovdiaj 
Aev ere TTpiirovv ra rpayovbia, 

Yiriy €K€ivos o Kaipos' 
Tdypa rdcpos 7rKrjcrid^€iy 
To)pa Odvaros cfxovd^eL, 

T<apa Xdpos Xv7rr]p6s ! 
"OBev irkeov €TOLfjLd(TOVj 
*P^^e oXa ra KaXd crov, 

He TOP Koa-fJLOV EXE TEIA ! 
Kat TO, ddKpva ^dara fxovov 
Ety rrjv XvTrrjv k els top ttovov 

Mta p^iKpT} TrapTjyopLd ! 



ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING. 



Ha 1 17 rplx^s fJL av d(nrpL^ovv 
Mt^tto)? rdxarc TriKpl^ovv ) 

T, if J t n a I f 

L €X V acnrpr) tovs pa<pTj ^ 

Toiydp T acTTTpo Oavaropei ; 

'H (piXcdVTas dyicvXovei, 

Ta ;(6tXaKta *$■ tyjv d(prj * 
To TpavrdcpvXXo fiay, Tvpcorop, 
To XovXovdt Ta)P ^Epdtrcov 

EipaL aanpo KaOapo' 
Kai TO KOKKCPo Tj (pvais 
To crvyKepaaep eTrlcrrjs 

M' €pa XP^P- daiTpovbepo, 
'H pvpTLCL rrjs \\cf)pobLTT]s 
"Els TO TrpdaiPO KXadi ttjs, 

M€(r* 's* ra (pvXXa to, x^cod 
'^OXa KdTacTTTpa, cdp ;^toi/i, 
Ta XovXovbia ttjs (pVTpopet. 

T* dpdrjpd, KOL Tpvcj)€pd. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. l6l 

Kat 6 Ata? 6 /xeyaXos 

Fta TTjs Arjdas tov to koXXos 

KvKVos yivK€ jiLCL (j)opd, 
N* dnodeL^ els KaSe fiepos, 
"kdwpais rpixoLis OeX* 6 '^Epcos, 
2av TOV KVKVOV TO. (pT€pd, 

To \onrov Key ocro OeKci, 
\s do-Trpl^o) dev /xe /xeXet, 

IlavrcXcos dev fie XvTra* 
Otl ooro TvavT dcTTrpl^co, 

T6(T0 IvXeOV VO(TTip.L^(x), 

Too-' 6 epoas jjl dyaTra, 



LOVER'S LONGING. 

As yevovfxovv Kadp€<pTr]s I 

Na ^XeTTearaL '$• efieva, 
K eyo) pa ^Xeirco iravTa 

To KoKkos (TOV, K io-iva. 
As yevovfiovu ^TevaKi ! 

ziya (Tiya v ap^iQa 
^^ ^X^C^ '^^ P'oXXtd crov, 

Na <T TO, crvxvoxT€VL^(o ! 
As rjjxovv depaKrjs ! 

Kal oXos va KivrjcroD 
S TO. o-TTjOrj (TOV va Trecro), 

TXvkcl va TO, (j)V(Tr}(Tco, 

""As fjjJiOVV TeXos VTTVOS ! 

Na €px(OfiaL to ^pddv, 
Na Sei^o) TO. yXvKa (tov 

MaTaKia *s to (TKOTadi, 



1 6 2; MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

THE NIGHTINGALE, 

KtV ar)bovaKL jjlov KaXo^ 
KiVa Koi Trdye ^(tto jloXo 

TrjV aKpL^Tj TTOV ^€Vp€lSy 

Na Tras va fxi rrjv evpjjs' 
Kat (Tap TTjV ^pfjs koX ttjp Idrjs 
Ap^iva Kel va KeXad^s, 

TXvkcl yXvKO, fx€ X^P^ 
Na o-Kv\jr7] pa (re Trdprj 
Av (T epcoTijcrrj tl cr ecrv * 
Kal TTOLOS (T6 (TTeXpei cm to p-qcrll 
EiTTfj TTcos elfxaL doopo 
UovXl (rrepayfjLocjyopo I 
Uws 6 d(p€PTr]s fjiov edcj 
Me (TTeXpei pa (re rpayovdci)' 
Ta Trddr] pov pa Kkaiyco 
Me peXos pa (r ret Xeyo). 
'^'Ycrrepa crKvy\re raireLpd 
Kai XdXijcre Tr)P (riyapd, 

Kal opKia TT]v \ ra koXXt] 
2t6p K6p<po pa (re l3dXj]' 
A)( dijdopaKL p bep (Baara) 
0a ae ro ttco, EtVat ttlctto j 
^EttI^ovXo prj yeP7]S 
"Etop KrJTTOP TTOV ipTTalpeis. 

TRANSLATION OF 'THE NIGHTINGALE.' 

' Fly, nightingale, to yonder shore ; 
Fly, fly, what need I tell thee more : 
Go find me out my dearest, 
Go, if my prayer thou hearest. 
And when my dearest thou hast found, 
Begin to sing thy sweetest sound. 

That she may stoop and take thee, 
And her companion make thee. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 63 

And if she then shall make demand, 
Who sent thee from the island strand, 

Say, " Hither cx)me I flying, 

A bird of saddest sighing; 
My master sends me for a gift. 
That I in song my voice may lift 

To tell how he doth languish, 

And warble all his anguish.'* 
Then like a suppliant appear, 
And whisper softly in her ear. 

And plight thy master's duty^ 

Swearing by all h^r beauty. 
Placed in the garden of her breast— 
Ah nightingale, I cannot rest, 

Uneasy fears dismay me, 

Lest there thou shouldst betray me.' 



EACCHI LAUDES. 

Orav TTtVo) TO KpaaaKi 
''2t6 xP^^^ /^ou TTOTrjpaKi 
Kal 6 vovs fJLov ^aXioSfj' 
Tor apxi^co koI ;^op6U6), 
Kal yeXo) /cat )(copaT€voi), 
K?7 ((OT) p! evxapiCTTei. 
Tore iravovv fj (ppovTtdes 
Tore (T^vvovv rj eXnldeg 
Tore cj)evyovu ol KarrvoL 
Kr] Kapdid pov yaXrjvL^ec^ 
Km TO cTTTJdos pov apxL^€L 
N' avadalvrj^ v dvaTTufj' 
Tlo, tov Koapov bev pe peXei, 
'Aff yvptCr), OTTCDS OeXcL, 
To Kpaa-CLKL pov va ^fj, 

H Kavara va prj arvxlrrjy 
Att to TrXdyL va pr} Xely^rj^ 
N cLTToOdvcDpe pa^i. 
M 2 



164 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

'OcrO €XOy TOVTOVy TOVTOV 

Tbv cLKevcdTov fiov ttKovtov^ 

KocrO TTLVCO Kol pOV(pCi)' 

'OXa (TKv^aXa ra e^cOj 
Eis Kaveva dev Trpocrep^a)^ 
Kai KCLviva bev ^//'T/^a). 

From these examples it will be seen that Christopulos 
adopted the language of the common people in literary com- 
position. He had a theory that the vernacular was nothing 
but Aeolo- Doric, and that it ought so to be called, and, as 
Mr. Sophocles emphatically observes, 'it was called Aeolo- 
Doric/ After which I think nothing further can be said on the 
subject ; except it be that Christopulos was the author of an 
' Aeolo-Doric ' Grammar, and several other works, trans- 
lations, &c., in the same dialect. 

Before proceeding to our contemporaries in Greek litera- 
ture I will say a few words on the popular poetry, the name- 
less and numberless ballads, which after all are the pride of 
modem as of ancient Greece. 

However glorious and unparalleled the Iliad and the 
Odyssee may be, as works of genius, yet the mind that 
brought them forth remains a great unknown, and in their 
origin and first publication they were just as much ballads 
as the popular poetry of Greece. 

It has been already frequently remarked how curiously the 
old mythology of Greece survives in the popular superstitions^ 
and yet at the same time how strangely it is modifiedo 
Charon for example, as in the following poem, appears 
rather as the Hermes Pompeios than the genuine Charon 
of the ancients. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 1 65 

CHARON AND THE GHOSTS. 

Tt €ivaL fiavpa ra ^ovvd^ Koi ^orreKQW ^ovpKco^eva J 
M.r]v av€fjiOS to. iroXefia \ firjva ^pox^j to. dcpvet ] 
K' ovb^ aj/€fJLOS TO. 7ro\€fj,a, k ovde ^po^r) ra d€pv€i 
Moi/6 hia^aiv 6 Xapovras fxe tovs CLTT^Sajxpevov^' 
"Eepvet TOVS viovs dno ifXTrpoG-rd, tovs yipovTas KaToni^ 
Ta Tpv(p€pa TraidoTTovXa 's ttju creXX' appadiaa-fjieva. 
UapaKoXovv ol yepovTcs, k ol vioi yovaTL^ovV 
^Xdp€ jjLOVy Koveyjr^ els X^P*^> Koveyj/ ds Kpva ^pvo-i, 
Na TTLovv ol y€povT€s V€p6j K ol vtol va XiBapLG-ovv^ 
Kat TCL piKpd TTaidoTTOvXa va pdcrovv \ov\ovhdKia. — 

K ovo €is X^P^^ Kovevco yco^ k ovOe €Ls Kpva ppvai 
^'EpxovT T) pdvves yid V€p6, yvapi^ovv tcl TratSid tcdv' 
TvoapL^ovTai t dvbpoyvva, koI ;^ci)pfco-fto div exovpj 

Of the so-called Klephtic Ballads, the finest with which I 
am acquainted is 

THE BURIAL OF DEMOS. 

*0 rj^Los elBaalXcve, k 6 Arjfjios BiaTd^eu' 

'2vpT€, TTaibid pov, 's to vepov, \j/€op\ va (pdT aTToyj/e. 

Kat o-Vy AafjLwpdKrj jLt* dv€yj/i€, KdQov idco Kovrd poV 

Nd ! r' appard pov (f)6p€cr€, va ^crat KarriTdvos' 

Kat (tUs, Traidcd pov, 7rdpeT€ to ep-qpo G-iraBl pov, 

Updo'tva k6\J/-€T€ /cXaStd, (TTpoyaTe pov va KaSiO'cOf 

Kat (^€pT€ Tov TTvevpaTLKo va p i^opoXoyr)a-T]' 

Na TOP etTTcj to. KplpaTa ttov e^cy Kapcopeva^ 

TptdvTa XP^^^' dpapTcoXos, k eiKocn 7T£vt€ KXecjyTrjs' 

Kal Toypa p rjpSe OdvaTos, Ka\ 6eX(D v diraLOdvcOs 

Kdp€T€ TO KL^ovpi pov TrXaTV , 1^7^X6 va yevrj^ 

Na aTe< opOhs va iroXepch^ Kal diTrXa vd yepi^ta, 

K* aTTO TO pepos to d€^\ d(j)rj(TT€ TrapaBvpL, 

Td ;^€XiSdi^ia vd ^pxcovTot, ttjv avoi^iv vd (pepovv^ 

Km t dydoma top koXop Mai vd pe paBalpovp/ 



I 66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

I offer the following as a nearly literal translation : — 

The sun was falling from his throne when Demos thus commanded : 
' Oh ! children, get you to the stream, to eat your bread at even ; 
And thou, Lambrakes, kinsman mine, come near and sit beside me ; 
There, take the armour which was mine, and be like me a captain. 
And ye, my children, take in charge the sword by me forsaken; 
Cut branches from the greenwood tree, and spread a couch to rest 

me. 
Go fetch me now the priest of God, that he may come and 

shrive me, 
For I would tell him all the sins that I have ere committed, 
While thirty years a man-at-arms, one score and five a robber. 
And now to take me death has come, and I for death am ready. 
Then make my tomb on every side right broad, and high above me., 
That I may upright stand to fight, and stoop to load my musket : 
And on the right hand side, I piay, leave me a little window, 
Where swallows in the early year may bring the springtime with 

them. 
And of the merry month of May the nightingales may tell me.' 

As a fitting accompaniment to this I would cite another 
beautiful ballad, entitled 

'H BOH TOY MNHMATO^. 

'2a^^aTov okov TTivafJiey ttjp KvpiaK oXrjfjiepap^ 

Kal Tj]v devrepav to TTOVpvov \_7Tpo)L] i(T&)07) to Kpao-l pas. 

*0 KaueTavos p^ €o-T€i\€ va Trdo) Kpaal va (pepco, 

Bepos eyoy Kal apados tip rj^svpa top dpopop^ 

KirTTJpa arpaTcus ^coarpaTais kol ^epa popoiraTta, 

To popoTTCiTi ^ e/SyaXe (T€ piap -ip'rjXrjp pa^ovXav" 

'Htqp y^pcLTT) piVYjiiaTa oX* aTTo TroXXrjKdpia. 

"YiV ppyjpa r^rap popa)(hy ^e^copop Vo to, aXXa" 

Asp etSa, Kal to TraTrjo-a GTrdpio ^0-to K€CJ)d\t" 

BOT^P aKOVCO KOL PpOPTTjP OTTO TOP mr6) KOCTflOP. 

Tt €)(sis pvrjpci Kal ^oyyas Kal j^apvapaCTepd^dS I 
Mrjpa TO x^}^^ ^^^ iSapet. prjpa y] pavpij jfkdKa I 
Ovdi TO ^a>fia p.ov (Bap€lj ovdi r] pLavpi] likaKa^ 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 1 67 

yiov TO)(co fxapav k ivTpoirrjV k euav Kavfxou jxeyakov 
To 7ra)s fie KaTa(j)p6vr)(T€s, fxi TrdrrjcTes V to KecpaXi' 
Ta;^a deu rjfxovv k iyo) veos j div Tjfiovu TraXKrjKapL * 
Aev eTTCpTraTTjora iyca rrjv vvKra pe (peyydpi ' 

The following is given to show how the notion of the 
consciousness and, as it were^, suppressed vitality of the dead 
is further connected with the old superstition of daemons or 
genii, which belongs not only to Greece, but to Eastern 
behef generally, as we see in the 'Arabian Nights/ In 
modern Greece the o-tolx^'lov seems always of a malevolent 
disposition ; and that that was the case in the early ages of 
Christianity we may infer from the use of haipoviov in the 
New Testament. Sad to say, this superstition has been 
known to result in human sacrifice, as in the case of the 
Bridge of Arta, which, according to the popular ballad, could 
not be built securely until the little daughter of the master- 
builder had been sacrificed to the genius of the place, by 
being thrown down and buried in the stones, which were to 
form the foundation of the structure. 

Do we not find traces of this dark superstition, which, like 
other dark superstitions, the Greeks seem to have borrowed 
from the East, in Joshua's curse pronounced over Jericho 
(Josh. vi. 26)? 'Cursed be the man before the Lord, that 
riseth up and buildeth this city Jericho : he shall lay the 
foundation thereof in his firstborn, and in his youngest son 
shall he set up the gates thereof.' See the fulfilment of this 
curse in i Kings xvi. 34. And is it not a significant fact 
that the story of the 'temptation' of Abraham to offer up 
Isaac is associated with Mount Moriah, one of the hills upon 
which, according to tradition, Jerusalem was built ? 

TOY M0Y2IK0Y KAI TOY STOIXEIOY. 

'E'vl/'es" x^ovL 'v^t;(aSt(7e k 6 ^idvvqs irpayovba, 
Tocrov Tpayovbu yXvKci kol vocrTtpa Koikadety 



1 68 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Tov irrfp depas ttjv (pcovrjv V rod ApaKovros Trjv (pepei, 

^E^yrjK 6 ApaKos k ftTre tov, ^Idvvrj, Be va crk (pdyoHf 

Tiarl ApdKOf yLori Oepio, yiari Od fie (tkotqixttjs I 

Tiarl diajBaLveis Trdpcopa kol rpayovdels Trapovpya' 

SvTTvds T drjbovL air rals (j)co\(,als kol to, TTOvkid tt rovs 

KdyLTTOVS. 

SvTTvds K ifii Tov ApdKovTa jii Trjv ApaKovricro-d pov, 
Acjyes /xe ApdKo va StajSw^ ci(j)€s fie vd nepdaay* 
Tpdne^av e^ 6 ^aaiKcds Kol p! €)(^ei Kokecrpivov' 
M' €^€4 yta TrpcoTov povcriKov irpoiTov Tpayovbio-Triv tov. 

The forms ApaKos nom., dpdKovros gen., and dpdKo voc, seem 
to show that dpdKos is not a metaplastic form, but rather a 
relic of the original form bpdKovrs, of which another modern 
form is dpdKovras, obtained by the insertion of a vowel to 
facilitate pronunciation. 

We will conclude these examples of the popular poetry 
of Greece with two more pieces, the first illustrative of the 
personification of Death as Xdpos : — 

Ae^evTTjS ipo^oXaeu dwo rd Kopcfyo^ovvia,, 

^Ix^ TO (peai TOV o-Tpa^d kol ra paWid KKoacrpiva^ 

Kai Xdpos tov dyvdvT^vev cxtto '^lXtju paxovXav^ 

Kal els (TT€vbv KaT€^7JK€ K €Ket TOV KapT€pOVO-€' 

Ac^evTT] TToBev epx^o-ai. ; XelSevTrj ttov TrrjymveLs ; 
*A7r6 ra TTpaTa epxopai^ cr to o-TrrJTi pov Trrjyalvoa' 
lidyoa vd Trdpco to -v/rw/xt, k oTTLaco vd yvpiorco. 
YLipeva p^ eaTeiy 6 Geos vd jrapco ttjv "^vx^v crov^ 
"^A^o-e pe Xdp€, acfiae pe, TrapaKaXS) vd Cw^» 
^E;(a) yvvoLKa irdpa veav kol div Trjs TrpeTTCi. XW^' 
*Ai/ 7r€p7raTr]0-7j yXlycopa^ Xeyovv 7rS>s OeXei avdpa^ 
Kav TTcpTraTTjo-r] ^crvxa, Xeyovv ttcos Kapapovei, 
E;(Q) TTaibid dvrjXiKa kol opipav* aTTopvYjaKovV 
K6 Xdpos ^€v TOV {JKovaef Koi rjOeXe vd tov ndpr^' 
Xdpe adv aTro^acrtdes kol BeXeis vd pe Trdprjs 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 69 

Via Tka va 7raXe\^a)/xe ere jxapixapev akcovi* 
YAv fJie viKT)cr7]s Xdpe {jlov, p.ov iraipveis ttjv yjrvxrjv fiov^ 
Kav (T€ vifCTjCTco TToX cyo) TrrjyaLve \ to koKov (TOV, 
^'Eirrjyav kcll iiraXey^fav air to Trpcot cos to yevp^a, 
KavTOv KovTCL ^(T TO deiXivop TOV KaTajBdv 6 Xapos. 

The following lines, sung from house to house at the 
approach of spring, by children, are plainly a remnant of 
the x^^f'^^vLo-p.a of the ancients : — 

XcXidova epx^rat 

*A7r* TTjv acTTTpav OaXacrcrav, 

Kd0r]O'€ Kol XdXrjo-e' 

MdpTL, p.dpTL pOV KoXCy 

Ka\ (pXe^dprj (pXi^epe* 

KaV XLOvi^€LS, KCLV TTOVTL^eiS, 

Uake avoL^LV pvpl^eLs. 

Before closing this chapter, a few words are due to our 
contemporaries. The writings of many modern Greek prose 

authors, as for instance the 'lo-Topla Trjs 'EXXtjvlktjs eTravao-Tdo-ecos 

by Spyridon Tricupes, and the udnLo-o-a *lcodvva of Roi'des, 
are well known in England, and have been reviewed in some 
of our leading journals. Professor Asopios is well known 
by his Elo-aycoyr] els ulvdapov, and Professor Damalas by his 
Uepl dpx(ov. Papparregopulos' history of Greece is remark- 
able for its clear and simple style, and the unstudied purity 
of its language. I shall content myself with laying before 
the reader a few specimens of verse from the pens of living 
or but lately deceased poets. 

A. R. Rangabes, late Greek Ambassador in Paris, is 
known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but also as 
a poet. In his lighter moods, as a satirist, he recalls to our 
minds something of the great Greek comedian whom it is 
not unfair to suppose he imitates : — 



170 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 

Kai Ta-)(a noiovs \6yovs Icrxvpovs, (ro(f)ovs^ 
TTpoTelvere * V avTov rbv dvefiofjLvXop 

TTOV Pdcj)€T€j d(T7rpL^€T€, KTeVL(€T€y 

o-yovpatvere kol XdSos ovoyid^eTe 

creis al yvvoLK^s K€CJ)a\r)Vy vd pdOcofjiev 

bev r]jX7TOpov[JL€v TTolos civ€jJL0S (pvaa * 

Tou KocTfxov Tov vTTOvpyLKov Tov ' hrkavTa 

as yjrdXrj ndv o-TOfxa' 

TTjV evyevrj tov Kopv(pr)v (j)i\6do^os 

avdirrei (j)ayovpa. 
Tis olde dd(pvai av <j)VTp6vovv els avTr]v ^ 

rj €VTOfXa iSocTKovv • 
EtV A'lTva Tj Kap^la Krj KOtXla rov 

(pojBov rds iKprj^€LS. 

A. Au KaTopBcofrrjs vd pi Kdprjs virovpyov 
Xp^td^erai TraibeLa lo-cjs j dv avTO, 
opokoycb TTcos dev Tr)v e;(a). — B. o;(t dd I 
Kaipos bep eivai ottov (Ida vrrovpyou, 
K €Kpdr€i TO KovdvXt TOV COS dUcXXav 
K eaKGTTTep VTToypacjyrjv, Kat aypoia^av 
Ttt ypdppaTd tov KaKoriOeiai pvicov. 

So much for the politics of Athens. The newspaper 
editor Sphecias describes himself as the editor of the ^Eatan- 
swill Gazette' might have done :— 

Ucos elvai ttXtjv ivopL^a 
els Tas ^ASrjvas (pvXXa TrepLcrcroTepa 
€<pi]p€pLd(ov Tvapd (pvXXa Trpdcrtva. 
A. 'Edve TToXXd, dXX ovk iv tco ttoXX^ to ev. 
To (pvXXov pov elve KavTTjpiov o^v, .... 
KT) v^pLS pov elve yvpvrj kol avatbrjs, 
elv e^i^ua, elv ipTTprjo-TrjpLos davXos. 
pL avTov (patTL^dO TOU 'EXXtjvlkov Xabv 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 17I 



\ t 



oioaaKcov Ta prjTa Kai ra aTTopprjra 

Ety rrjs opy^s p-ov, av6pco7r€j ro (jjV(Tr]pa 
^€ppi^(Dp€vr} Si va TreV r] vea crov 
VTToXrjyj/^LSy avTY] ttov KaTCKparr^ircs. 

The power of Russia is thus finely described :— 

'O ylyas rrjs lorxvos pas €)((dv arpcopinjv tovs nayerovs^ 
rr]v bvdLV kol dvaroXrjv o-vve)l et? ras ayKoXas tov. 
*Addpas els to crreppa tov tov UoXov \ap7r€i 6 darrjp' 
Trara k vtto to ^rjpa tov (t^l^ovt ol Trdyot tov OvpdX' 
K etV T) TTVOT] TOV aTTjSovs TOV v7T€p^p€La SveXka, 

The following appear from the headings to be founded on 
German originals : — 

-t[. nEPI2TEPA. 

2K0770S5 Sag' an lieber Vogel mein. 

Ylov \k aTrkcopeva to, TTTepa 
Treras \cvKr} Trepicrrepa, 

OT €(p TJp:COV 

TOVS Tfdyovs (pepSL tov Poppa I 

^'^Ottov rj avoL^Ls yikd, 
KCii avpai Trveovv diroXa 

eKel TTCTcb 

TO (j^CdS Ol'^cb 

^TjTco TO. avBrj Ta jroWd.^ 

Uttjvov prj <p€vyrjSj deiXtwv 

7ra>s pas KaTcXa^e )((Eip6iV, 

Qeppov, Beppov 

eVTOS 7]pOdV 

OdXireL TO TTvp tcov KapbiSiv, 



l^^ MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

' GepjjLrf Kaphia ^lKikj] 

TToKKeL rravTov. Aip fJLol dpKei/ 

f^as diravTa, 

yopyr) Trera 
Kels ^€vas (TTeyas /xerotfcet, 

IL NYKTEPINON. 

2K07rosy Leise fliehe^i meine Lieder, 

\dfji7rei dpyvpd, 

Koi TTjV KOfXTjV TT]S eKT^lvCl 

els (TTiKiTva vepd, 

EjBya* va Idrjs' els CJ)vXka 

€h TO (f>a)s XP^^^ 
Xapvyyi^^ r} ^ikofirps^a 

dcTfia cos TO, (rd, 

"^Akovo-op tl '^oKK rj yXcoo-cra 

rj pLayevTiKrj^ 
'2v TO ([)o)s, KOI aif rj (axra 
clcrai fiovcTiKT], 

To TTciv nXrjpes dpjxovlas 

KCLL SepfXCOV TToKpCJV, 

^EXdij KevQovv eK Kapblas 
eyetpov "yj/aXfiov. 

Avoi^ov copala x^'^Vy 

va (TKLpTY](T rj yrj' 
K.aL ivTos fJLOV V dvaTeikrj 

TrdfJLCpcoTos avyr). 

At '\jrvxiil' fJ'CLs §€, cos Tovos 

fieXovs o-viJL(pcovc^v, 
*^Ac[)€s V dva^ovv avyxpovcos 

els TOP ovpavov. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 73 

A very popular poet in Greece is Zaiacostas, who has 
been dead some ten years or more, a voluminous translator 
from Italian poets, and as an original writer full of power 
and imagination, though rather unequal in felicity. He has 
the merit, if merit it be, of introducing a vast variety of new 
metres into modern Greek versification. He would appear 
to have passed the greater part of his life in conversation 
with the manes of Greek heroes and martyrs, indignant at 
the degradation of their country. 

The following may serve as an example : — 

EtS TOV TVfxlBoP €K€lvOV TtXtJCTLOV, 

riveoa^Br] fxe Trarayov xdo-yia' 

KCLL rrjs yrjs eK tcov (nrXdy^voov tcop Kpycav 

iTivd)(6r] deKanrix'^ (pdafia. 

A ! deu fJTO^ TOV VOX) jjlov dndTT], 

fiTjTe (ppovdop TOV (po^ov iiov TrXdo-fxa, 

BXoCrVpOV Tre pL€(TTp€(p€ ^p^dTiy 

4 Kai XafiTrdda (jyXoycov diaTTvpcov 

fX€ TTjV ciaapKa x^^P^ eKpaTei, 

^EBepfidvOrj iir afxcTpov yvpov 
6 aWrjp Kol rj yrj kol ol XlOoi, 
KOL rj KOVLS avTTj TCOV fJLapTvpcov. i 

^ ^ *n ?jC ^ 

Tovs yevvaiovs fxas p,dpTvpas elda 

0(701 €7r€0-0V TTLO-TeCOS (j)tXoL 

dia jjLLav 6av6vT€s naTpida. 
KaTr)(f)€lsj (TKvOpcoTTol KOL opyiXoL 
KaTeheUvvov peXr) BXacrpiva 
Kai 7rXr]ya)v diaxalvovra X^^^V* 

Aristoteles Valaorites writes for the common people in 
vernacular Romaic. 

*0 BpvKoXaKasy * The Vampire,' is thus described, or rather 



174 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

addressed by the widow of the deceased Thanases Vagias, a 
notorious wretch : — 

JQeff iiov ri CFTeKeo-ai Qavdarrjy 6p66s, 
BovlSos (TO, XeL\l/-avo ^(ttcl yLoria iyLirpos ] 
VtaTLy QavdcTT] fiov, jByaiveis to ^pddv j 
"^Yttvos yia aevave bev elv ^cttov ''^8rj j 

Twpa 7r€pd(rav€ ;(poi/ot rroXkoi' 
Ba^eta (reppt^ave /zecra Vr^ yrj, 
^€vya (TTrXaxvi'O'ov fie, 0a KOLprjOco^ 
\(j)€s pe rjdvxf} vdvaiTav6co 

^rda-ov paKpvrepa ..... , TiaTL pe aKid^ets y 
Qavdcrr] ri €Kapa kol pe rpopd^eis j 
Ila>s elcraL TTpdaivos ! pvpi^eis X^M"* 
lies pov, bep eXv(ocr€9, Savdo-rj, aKopa * 

Notice here the imperative Trey for elires, and compare a^ey, 
&c. This is another relic of the verbs in pi. 

I will conclude this chapter with two anonymous frag- 
ments of Greek popular songs. For the German ren- 
dering of the first, which is more successful than the 
English, I am indebted to my friend Herr Julius Henning, 
of Athens :— 

UdvTa vd 'peOa pa^v, 
Tt peyaXrj €VTV)(La 1 

Tt TTLKpOS 6 )(COpLO'p6Sy 

Tt p^yakrj bvcrrvx^o, ! 

paKpdv Vo ere, '^vxhj 

Tt TTiv 6e\o> j Tt Tr]v BeXco Tr}V ^(orj j 

AaKTvXtd* dno pakXia 
p6v dvdpvrjo-is pov pevet. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 75 

"KhXo bev TTaprjyopel., 

AvTo fxivei Koi jiapaivei 

MaKpav aiTo ae, yj^vxv» 

Tt TTjv SeXco • dep rrju BeXco ttjv ^cot] ! 

* Ever to abide with thee 
Were the height of purest bliss ; 
But the bitter, cruel parting, 
Where is grief to match with this? 
When I am far from thee, 
What is life, ah, what is life to me ? 

' One memorial still is left, 
A ring from thy fair tresses braided; 
Nothing else my soul can cheer. 
This remains, but I am faded : 
And thus forsaken here, 
How can I, nay, I cannot live a life so drear.' 

' Stets vereint mit dir zu sein 
Ware Himmelsseligkeit : 
Ach du bitteres boses Scheiden ! 
Ewig flieht das Gliick mich weit : 
Was, Geliebte, fern von dir 
Frommet wohl, ja frommet wohl das Leben mir? 

' Nur aus Locken noch ein Ring 
Bleibet als Erinnerung mir: 
Andrer Trost ist nicht zu finden ; 
Dieser bleibt, ich bleiche schier. 
Was, Geliebte, fern von dir 
Frommet, nein es frommet nicht das Leben mir.' 

I know nothing in any language more beautiful of its 
kind than the following, with which I gladly close a long 
and laborious but not ungrateful task : — 

Els TO pevpa Trjs C^rjs p.ov 
Aia Tt va (J aTTavrrjo-co * 
At* e/xe a(^* ov dev rjcro 
AiaTL va (re iSw * 



176 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 

Kat )Lte cKafjLCs dnavcrTcos 
'2Tepayfxovs va v7ro<j)€pQ)f 
Kai ycXds Stort /cXato), 
Aia (T€ Koi 6pr]vcodoo, 

'2T€p^€y Kajjie tj pa ^rjcrco 
H VOL iravcrr] tj ttvoy) fxov* 
Icrcos, ^LcrcoSf arrjv Bavrjv jjlov 
HXeov ix€TaixiKr]6fjs . 
^ ^ -^ -^ 

Acv fr/Tw, ol (TTevayfiol fxov 
Trjv Kapbiav crov v iXKvcrovv' 
GeXo) p,6vov, orav o-jSixrovv 
Trjs fco^s pov at cmypaL, 
'E'Va (TTcvaypov Bp-qvoab-q 
€lg ^^atpertor/ioi/ v d(prjcrr]9, 
Kels TOP Td(pov pov pa X^^V^ 
Ei^ crov bcLKpv bC ipii, 

I have attempted the following German translation, find- 
ing it beyond my powers to render the sense and metre in 
English :~ 

An dem Strome meines Lebens 
Ach wozu dir noch begegnen? 
Da ich liebe dich vergebens 
O warum dich wiedersehn ? 

Dir, Erbarmungslose, gelten 
Unaufhorlich meine Seufzer, 
Und du lachest, weil ich weine, 
Und verhohnst mein bitt'res Flehn. 

Ach, genug! nun lass mich leben, 
Oder sterben doch im Frieden; 
Ja vielleicht wenn ich geschieden, 
Wirst du deinen Hohn bereun. 



MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 77 

Nicht will ich dass meine Seufzer 

Ein so kaltes Herz bewegen ; 

Nur dass wenn sich nicht mehr regen 

Meines Odems matte Ziig', 

Eine jammervoUe Klage 

Du zum Abschied nach mir sendest, 

Und an meinem Grabe spendest 

Eine Thrane noch fiir mich. 



N 



APPENDIX L 

On the G-reek of the Gospels of St. John and 

St. Luke. 

I MUST now hastenJ;o redeem a promise, made at the 
commencement of this work, by indicating, in however brief 
and cursory a manner, what kind of light may be derived 
from the study of modern Greek with regard to the respec- 
tive ages of documents of disputed authenticity. I shall 
confine my remarks principally to the Gospels of St. John 
and St. Luke, only premising that the following is thrown 
out merely as a kind of forerunner to a work which I hope 
one day to accomplish, and which, if its ideal is ever realized, 
will consist of a comparison of the Greek of the various 
books of the Septuagint, apocryphal or otherwise, and of 
those of the New Testament, with a view to determining 
how far the evidence of language confirms or weakens, and 
how far it is an adequate criterion of, the results of modern 
research. 

For the present, I' would remark in the outset that several 
cautions must be borne in mind in attempting to weigh 
evidence of this kind. In the first place, it is obviously not 
enough to count up a number of modernisms in two docu- 

N 2 ■ * 



l8o APPENDIX I, 

merits, and balancing the number found in the one against 
the number found in the other, at once draw the hasty 
conclusion that a majority of modernisms proves a later 
origin. For many other questions have to be taken into 
consideration, and above all that most important one, is the 
style of the authors such that they admit of this simple 
comparison? Is there evidence of artifice and pedantry, 
such as would lead us to expect the avoidance of modernisms ? 
are there signs, as in most of the Fathers, of a straining after 
archaic expressions ? And if so, in what degree ? For there 
are degrees of pedantry on the one hand, and degrees of 
familiarity on the other. Plato is more popular in his 
phraseology than Thucydides, Aristotle often more so than 
Plato. 

Then, again, the frequent occurrence of a single mo- 
dernism is more significant than the occasional occurrence 
of many; and again, there are some modernisms which are 
far more striking and unquestionable instances than others. 

Such are some of the considerations to be borne in mind 
in applying the test of language as an evidence of the 
antiquity of documents ; to which we may add another and 
very obvious one — namely, the limits which the slow growth 
of language sets to any accuracy in determining the age of 
any writing by the light of style and diction alone. Thirty 
years is a scarcely appreciable interval, but a hundred years, 
or even two generations, may make a very marked dif- 
ference. 

Let us now approach the subject a little more in the 
concrete. 

The first thing that strikes us is that the Greek of the 
New Testament, however popular, familiar, and simple, is 
by no means so vulgar, so nearly a vernacular, as that of the 
Septuagint. We miss with few exceptions, and those to be 
found chiefly in the Apocalypse, forms like dba, iXeyoaav, iXd- 



APPENDIX I. -1 8 1 

Poo-av, 7760-6 for TTea-ov, &c., all of which we know must have 
existed in the age of the New Testament, just because they 
have been preserved in modern Greek, sometimes in a 
slightly altered shape, up to the present day. What then 
may we generally conclude with respect to the Greek of the 
New Testament as a whole ? We answer, that while it was 
familiar and popular it was not vernacular; it adopted the 
homely expressions, but did not as a rule let itself down 
to the grammatical level of the common people, in which 
respect it may be compared to the style of a popular 
modern Greek newspaper, which is familiar enough to be 
readily intelligible, but not enough so to be vulgar ; neither 
altogether the spoken language of the common people, nor 
yet by a long way the book-language of the learned. 

But when we come to compare the books of the New 
Testament among themselves, w^e do not find them exactly 
the same in style; there is a certain striving after semi- 
classical words and expressions in Luke and the Acts which 
we miss in other parts, while the Epistles may be looked 
upon, for the most part, as such simple utterances of the 
feelings called forth by the occasions on which they were 
written, that, a priori^ we should expect the use of more 
familiar expressions in them than in other writings of the 
New Testament. If therefore we find TravTore for ad^ and 
KaQfis for €Ka(TTos, in St. Paul's Epistles, this does not argue 
their late date with anything like the force that the occur- 
rence of the same words possesses in St. John, where the 
theological speculative style would naturally lead us to look 
for an avoidance of too familiar expressions ; and therefore 
their presence in St. John's Gospel argues that, in the time 
when it was written, these same familiar expressions had 
risen to the level of book -language, and were no longer 
confined to conversation. 

Now let us notice briefly what are the most striking 



l8a APPENDIX 1. 

modernisms in the fourth Gospel, and see whether they 
can be reasonably accounted for except on the hypothesis 
of a very much later origin than that of the first two 
Gospels. 

The most significant fact which lies on the surface of St. 
John's Gospel is the immense frequency of certain modern- 
isms. For example, Trtafco (modern Greek Trtai^o), eViao-a) occurs, 
not sometimes but invariably, for o-vXXafx^dvco, Now there 
is no doubt that Trta^'a) occurs in the Septuagint in the 
modern Greek sense, but then the Septuagint was much 
nearer the vernacular of the time ; but il's^ frequent occurrence 
in the fourth Gospel shows it must have been written at a 
time when Trtaf^ had become the recognized word for o-uX- 
XafjL(3av(o, and that moreover in a more cultivated style than 
that which the Septuagint represents. And who can help 
noticing that where the fourth Gospel says Tna^co, those of 
Matthew and Mark say KparS) or o-vWafx^avcD ? And yet the 
style of Matthew and Mark is not more refined or elevated, 
but less so, than that of St. John. Again, St. John says 
6\lrapiop for IxOvii compare John vi, 9 with Matthew xiv. 15, 
Mark vi. 35. Now no one denies that o^dpiov is as old as 
Aristophanes, but he uses it as intentionally quoting the 
vernacular, while the fourth Evangelist employs it as the 
natural word. But more striking still is the use of rpSyco for 
eo-Oico, not in a colloquial, but in the most solemn and mys- 
terious connection possible : 6 Tpcoycav jxov ttjv o-dpKa^ koI nlvav 
jJLOV TO alfjia, e^et C^rjv alcoviov^ 6 rpcoycov /xe, KCLKelvos ^r](TeTaL hi cfxe^ 
6 Tp(x>ycov pov TTjv (rdpKa Koi ttlvcov p.ov to alpa^ iv ijxoX pevet koI 
eyco iv avTco, 6 Tpcoyutv tovtov tov apTOV ^r](T6Tat els tov alcova. 

Here rpwyo) is invariably, and eo-Olco not once, used as the 
present, answering to (pdyco. In modern Greek rpcoyo) is the 
only present of cjxiycD in use. In Polybius, indeed, we have 
bvo Tpcoyopev d^eXcj^ot, but this is quoted as a proverb, a 
familiar colloquial expression, just as fressen and sau/en are 



APPENDIX I. 183 

vulgarly used in German for essen and trinken. It is there- 
fore an exceptional usage, which goes to prove the point 
which we desire to settle, namely, that rpcoyo) as appHed 
to a human being in the sense of simply eating, did not 
establish itself in the written language until the time of St. 
John. But I shall perhaps be told that in chap. xiii. St, 
John quotes the Septuagint, Psalm xli. 9, thus, 6 rpcoywz/ /xer' 

e/xoO Tov apTOv, eTrfjpev eV e/xe ttjv ivripvav avTOv. Let US See 

whether this is a quotation. Let us turn to the passage in 
question, and what do we find .^ That St. John has actually 
been at the pains of translating iaOlcov into rpcaycov, thereby 
proving beyond the possibility of a doubt that he deUberately 
preferred Tpa)ycov to io-Oioyv, as more familiar and more intelli- 
gible. Again, how constantly, and indeed almost invariably, 
does St. John use vTraycj for clfii where St. Matthew and 
Mark frequently use jSatVo), iropevop.ai^ &c., and with whom 
virayco is of comparatively rare occurrence. Again, the use 
of Oecopo), the modern Greek ScopS), as simply equivalent to 
/SXeVo), is characteristic of St. John, and to some extent of St. 
Luke. Notice too the continued recurrence of Tno-revco els in 
St. John instead of mcTTevca with the dative. 

We will now give a brief view of the remaining modern- 
isms in St. John, and challenge any one to produce a like 
array from either St. Mark or St. Matthew :— 

'Els TOV KoKtTOV tov TTCtTpOS '. OV €yCO OVK cljJLL Cl^lOS LVa Xv(TCO avTov 

TOV IfxavTu TOV vTTo^paTosj where one of these genitives must 
stand for a dative ; observe that Matthew says a^ios fiao-Too-ai, 
not Iva ^aa-Tao-co. UpSyros fxav rjv, compare in modern Greek 
fiovos /xou, TTOTE fxov, whcrcas in classical Greek this kind of 
relation is expressed by the dative, e. g. Idla avTco dLa(l)€p€L 
in Thucydides ; wo-el for wy, modern Greek oio-av ; rrov /xeVet ?, 
tI fi€ depeiSj both familiar modern Greek phrases ; vttokcWco 
TTjs o-vKrjs; (l)€p€T€ lu au aorlst sense, as in modern Greek, 
where the present is (pepvco ; the continual use of apTi for 



184 APPENDIX /. 

vvv; the frequency of diminutives, as (t^payeXKtov, o^dpiou^^ 
^j/cofitov (modern Greek equivalent of apros), GiTLou, &c. ; nod 
vTrdyei for irol clcn ; the frequent use of periphrastic perfect 

passives, yv dTroa-roKfievog^ eyevero dn^cTTdX^evo^^ dTrecTaXiJLepos 
elfiLj rjv ^€l3\rjfJL€V0Sj &C. ; iTrdvcD Trdvrcov for em rrdcn, iiTL with the 

accusative implying rest; a(/)^Kf t7]v 'louSaW, in the modern 

sense, instead of dvexoyprjo-ev dnb ; €KaSe^€TO ; 7rpo(TKVva), USed nOW 

with the dative, now with the accusative; o-wdyei Kapirovy 
modern Greek G-vvd^ei Kapirov; the frequent use of kottos, a 
common modern Greek word ; the frequency of such forms 
as Xakid, dvOpaKid ; vernacular forms, as the accent itself 
shows, though with some analogy (e. g, o-rpaTid) in classical 
Greek. In modern Greek as spoken by the common 
people the termination la regularly appears as id ; the fourth 
Evangelist says also o-Korla for g-kotos, preferring the form in la 
with the modern Greeks, who say o-Korid, dpoo-id, (pcondj for aKo- 
To?, bpocros, (pcos ;— 0A09 frequently for nds, as in modern Greek ; 
d(p' iavTov for e^)' ^avTov ; the far more frequent use of ha with 
the subjunctive ; the comparative rareness of the aorist parti- 
ciple, and frequency of the copulative Kal ; for example (one 
instance out of many), iy^pOeh apov aov rrji/ KklvrjVy Matthew ; 
€y€Lpat apov, St. John. Here too observe St. John uses the 
modern Kpd^^arov (Kp^fi^drLov) ; St. Matthew says iyepOeh 

dTTrjXde, St. John Tjpe top Kpd^^arov avrov Ka\ TTepLeirdreL ;—dn 
ifiavTov for €TT ijjLavTOv ; eh ov rjXTTLKaTe, TraibdpLov eV, for Traidlop 
without €P ; TTkoidpiov for TrXolov, and t^XoIov for vavs ; exoprd- 

adrjre, a common modern Greek word ; the frequent repeti- 
tion of avTov, avTov, and the loss of all distinction between 

avTov and avrov ; ttcos ovtos ypdjxpiaTa olde, modern Greek 7ra>s 

ovTos ypap^fiar r]^€vp€L ; eh KaBeh., one by One ; rjvoi^e side by side 

with dv€(o^€ ; p.Tj'deva for ovheva ; et? rd dnlaco ; oTricrco ifxov for 
pL€Td ep.6 ; Kocrp^os for ox^os ; did fxecrov avrcov for dc avrcov ; 
eyvcoKav for iyvatKaai, cf. modern Greek €vpr]Kav'j (TKopirl^cDy 
diacKopTrl^cOy 7Tpos(pdyiov^ jBaa-Td^co, passim for (pepco, vnayeLS cKel 



APPENDIX L 185 

for iKU(T€ ; i^vnviorco, ye/jLi^co^ iyyi^oa ; eiT€(T€V eh rovs tto^qs avrov 
instead of eiTecrev avTcp TTpo tto^cov ; irdpa^ev eavrov, icpavepcoaev 

iavTou, showing that the middle voice is on the wane ; evx^- 

pta-TG) for X^P'-^ °''^" ' ovapioVy ra Ipdria ; ottov VTrdyco for ottol elp,i ; 

pLoval TToXkalj many dwelling-places (povrj is modern and Byzan- 
tine Greek for a monastery;) ipcpavl^eiv] koI avrol eXajBou for 
ot de eXa(3ou ; (3aXe in the sense of ' put / yj^vxos rjv^ in modern 
Greek "^vxos rjTo] ea-ri (rvv-qdeta vpuv for clcodare, in modern 

Greek a-vv-qSeLa o-as eivai ; ocpelXei divoOavelv ; TrapacrKevr] without 

the article as a proper name, so in modern Greek irapa- 
crK€vrj = Friday ; rfj pna rcov (Tal^tBdrcDv, SO in modern Greek rfj 

pia Tov ^ATrpiXlov l els to. de^ia p^prj tov ttXolov. 

Many of these modernisms occur in the other Gospels ; 
but it is the frequency of their occurrence, the comparative 
regularity and consistency in the usage, and above all the 
presence of certain special modernisms of a very marked 
character, which make it impossible, I think, for any dispas- 
sionate reader to avoid the conclusion that the fourth 
Gospel must have been composed at least two, or perhaps 
three, generations later than either the first or the second. 

As to the Revelation of St. John, it can scarcely be com- 
pared with the Gospel, for it approaches much nearer the 
vernacular, and is so wild and barbarous in its grammar, 
that it is hard to believe it was written by one perfectly at 
home in the Greek language. Therefore the very striking 
modernisms in it, as KoXXovpiov eyxpLcov tovs otpdaXp^ovs o-ov, in 
modern Greek KoXXovpiov eyxpio-e tovs 6(p6aXfjLoi)s a-ov^ in ancient 

KoXXvpLov eyxpicrop rots 6<pSaXiJLols aov, OT, better, KoXXvptco eyxpi- 
(TUL TOVS 6cj)daXpovs ; C^CTTOs for Sepp^os, bcoo-Tf) for do), ^oacrova-L for 

dcoo-wo-i, and that for ^wo-i, eo-TaBr] for eVrr;, &c., do not enable 
us to assert on philological grounds the later origin of the 
Apocalypse, while the matter and spirit of the book point 
rather to an earKer period. 

The Epistles of John, at least the first Epistle, which alone 



l86 APPENDIX I. 

gives fair scope for judging, closely resembles the Gospel in 
phraseology, but it is a kind of resemblance that looks like 
imitation. 

A few words on the Gospel according to St. Luke. This, 
we have already observed, betrays a certain pedantry of style. 
There is a would-be classical ring about such phrases as 

dvaTa^acrdai hiriyqcnv, iva imyvSys irepX hv KaTr])(rjSr]s ttjv d(T(paX€Lav, 
cdo^€ KCLfxcl TraprjKoXovBrjKOTL avodSev Trdariv aKpL^m, which showS 

an effort to struggle against the common familiar style of 
writing prevailing among the early Christians, who were 
mostly, as St, Paul says, IhcoraL tS \6yco. All the more 
striking therefore are the modernisms in St. Luke, which are 
continually cropping up in the midst of his most ambitious 
attempts, even when the effort is most sustained, as in the in- 
troduction to the Gospel. For example, rav 7T€7rXr]po<poprjpi€V(i)v^ 
which probably means ' those things of which information 
has been given,' 7r\rjpo(l)opa> meaning in modern Greek like 
el^oTTOLO), to inform. Again, e^ eipijixeplas 'AjSia is an extremely 
modern expression, and hardly intelligible till we know that 
in modern Greek ecprjiiepios means a priest. Notwithstanding 
all his Atticizing tendencies, Luke exceeds all but St. John 
in modernisms, and some of these are of a very startling 
character. For instance, iv avrfj rfj copa^ in that hour ; in 
modern Greek d^ avrtju ttjv copav, 

St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. John, all have avros used with- 
out the article as equivalent to ovtos or eKelvos, but only 
St. Luke, as far as I have discovered, uses it with the article 
and a noun in this sense. Nor does any other use even 
avTos, especially with /cat, so persistently as a simple demon- 
strative or personal pronoun. Other remarkable modernisms 
are evXa^rjs for e^o-^/STyy, iJLTjdep for ovd^v, ttXtjv for dWa passim, 
7rpo(T€pp7]^€u for 7rpoo-€7r€(Te ; cf. modern Greek p^x^^ = pltttco ; 

TO priyp-CL rrjs oIklus for 17 Trraxrf? ; a(jy€s e/c/3aXa) he shares with 
St. Matthew ; 6 fiiKporepos for 6 iXaxiC-TOs, TTcpLo-aoTepov for 



APPENDIX 7. 187 

TrXeoz/, are modern Greek ; so too are /xT^re — /xT^re for ovt€ — 
ovT€] lfjiaTL(TjjL€vov I the Very frequent use of okos for nas; the 
employment of virripx^, vnapxet (common to St. Luke and 
St. John) as simply equivalent to ^v, eWt; iropevov ety dprjvr^v 
for iv €LpT}V7j ; SeXcLs ciTToo/xei^ ; Kara crvyKvpiav (in modern Greek 

also Kara (TVVTVXLap) ; eCJ^Baaev for arrived simply; orrrao-La for 

vi'swn. Ets eV?^ TToXXa, xii. 19, is a regular form of congratula- 
tion in Greece at the present day. The phrase ' rich toward 
God ' is hard ; we should rather say ' rich in God/ taking els as 
equivalent to iv. Uola ^pa for rm &pa is modern Greek. 'O 
Kavo-cov is also modern Greek. 'Ev(l)paivopaL, of ^ festive enjoy- 
ment/ is used in exactly the same connection in three places 
in St. Luke as in the modern Greek drinking-song : — 

E x^^ i\a(TT€j 
^epre Kepaare' 
BaXre m TTioO/xf, 
Na €v<j)pavdoviJLe. 

The phrase €v(j>paLv6p.evos KaO' r^pipav XafiTTpcos has a modern 
ring in it which is quite astounding to one familiar with col- 
loquial Greek. We have, again, els ttjv kolttjv for iv rfj Kotrfj. 
^OdvvaaaL, (pdyeaat Ka\ rrUcraL are Startling modern forms, com- 
ing as they do so close together. 'AvaTreo-ai is clearly a false 
spelling for dvdirea-e, chap. xvii. 7, as there could be no 

meaning in the middle. Am fxeo-ov ^afiapelas kuI TaXiXaias, p^era 
7rapaTr}prj(T€(0Sj With observation^ a singularly modern phrase, 

(jTaQeis for (Trds^ Sucr^oXcos' for ;)(aXe7rc5s', rpvpaXidsy cf. dvOpaKLa, 
&C., Kaipos for xpovo^y iyyl^^iVj iTrdvco for im, Traidevcrco = castigabo^ 
l(rxy(o passim for ^vvapai, rb Tvoas napadS, cvKaipiav, xpelav exojJLCv, 
diicrxvpi'C^TO, ivdoinov avrov, copiKovv for iXdXovv, (TvCrjTelVj evXoyoo, 

yj/rjXacpcb = simple ^avo), are other modernisms of St. Luke. 
"EKpviBe is an interesting form because condemned by Phryni- 
chus, who, if the German critics be right, was almost a con- 
temporary of the writer of this Gospel. 



1 88 APPENDIX J. 

There can be little doubt that the Acts of the Apostles j 
belongs to an age as late as the Gospel according to St. 
Luke, if not later. There is much general similarity in the 
language, notwithstanding the difference in the spirit and 
tendency of the whole ; but one phrase claims our especial 
notice, as a very decided modernism not found elsewhere 
in the New Testament. This is the word yevaao-Oai used in 
the sense not of 'to taste,' but 'to eat,' in fact 'to dine;' 

iyevero irpodiTeivos kol rjBeke y^vcracrOai. In modern Greek 
yeO/xa is dinner, yevofxai, to dine ; Trpoyevofxai,, to breakfast ; to 
aTToyevfjia^ the afternoon, 

I need not remind those who are acquainted with the 
critical investigations of Baur, Schwegler, and Hilgenfeld, 
that the conclusions to which a purely philological exami- 
nation seems hkely to lead us are the same to which they 
have arrived on other grounds, grounds quite strong enough 
in themselves, but still not so readily admitted by most, 
that they can altogether afford to dispense with even such 
evidence as the present, which, while not altogether as con- 
clusive as some might desire, is yet, as I think even this 
meagre sketch has shown, not mere fancy or guess-work, but 
subject to definite rules ; and capable of leading to definite 
results. Above all, I think it is an advantage when a ques- 
tion of this kind can be removed for a moment from the 
heated arena of theological strife, and looked upon in the 
clear ' dry light' of the passionless science of philology. 



APPENDIX II. 

A Short LexiloguSy coritaining a few of such words in 
modern and ancient Greek as seem to derive addi- 
tional light by comparison. 

''A/^aXf, or a jSaXe, Callim. Fr. 455, Anth. P. '7. 699, and 
,-3aXe, Alcman. Fr. 2, is^aid to be equivalent in meaning to 
elOe, dff axpeXe, &€., and seems to be an imperative from 
jSaXXo). That ^aXe, or /3aXe, should mean ' grant' is not at all 
unnatural, but what an abundant confirmation of this theory 
is it to find in modern Greek the derivative form (BoXel ^ 
licet, 

'Kyairri, ayavos, "Aya^os. The probable radical identity of 
these words has been noticed above. The modern Greek 
dyavTLKosj Or dya<pri.<6s = ipccriKosy seems to make this etymo- 
logy still more likely. 

'AyyeXXo). The derivation of this word can hardly be any 
other than dva-KeXKco; k^XXco being used in the sense of 
KeXofiai, and possibly identical in root with reXXco in eVtreXXo). 
At any rate the root of the second half of the word is (as 
Professor Max Mtiller informs me) gar-, which appears in 
KeKofiai, KeXabo^j and KaXeco ; and as the form yeX- is not found 
elsewhere in Greek, I think we must assume that the y is the 
result of the contact of k with the nasal. 



190 APPENDIX II. 

"Kyovpos. This is the modern Greek form of aoapos. The 

interest attaching to it consists in the fact that it implies a 

form yoapa for wpa, which is precisely what the cognate forms 

ydre in Zend, jahr in German, &c., would lead us to 

expect. 

'AypoLKG), This word would mean, if found in ancient 
Greek, ' to be boorish, rude, or ignorant;' in modern Greek, 
on the other hand, it means to know, e. g. 

Kat 6<T0L Tov TToXefiov Tr]V Te)(yr]V dypoiKovv. 

War Song of Rhegas. 

Here the signification which usage has sanctioned seems to 
be the very reverse of the original. Perhaps we ha.ve an 
intermediate stage in the dypaKoaocbo^, * coarsely wise,' of 
Philo, and the aypoiKos o-ocjyla of Plato's Phaedrus, 299 E. 
We too talk of being ' rough and ready.' What if we should 
have in the history of this word the record of the popular 
prejudice against philosophy, as a useless unpractical study 
which we have described in the Republic of Plato ? 

Is it not as though the honest farmer said, vpiels fxev (piXo- 
(To(f)€'lT€, iycb de dypoLKcb, i. e. * while you are star-gazing I am 
working in my farm.' To such a man (pLkoaocfyla is ^ the 
would-be-wisdom,' dypoiKla ' useful knowledge.' 

This accords very well with the usage of dypoLKco, which 
means to know an art, rather than a science; as in the 
example quoted above. There was, moreover, very likely a 
sense of irony in this use of dypoLKO), as though it were, ' I am 
the boor, as you philosophers call me.' With regard to the 
transitive use of dypoLKco in the example cited above, I thank- 
fully adopt Professor Max Miiller's suggestion, that it may 
originally have meant ^ to cultivate,' comparing olKovofico. 

'AXeVpt is modern Greek for aporpov. Does not this go far 
to establish the original identity of the roots dpo- and aXe- or 
d\€?-l Petavius, Uranolog. p. 258, calls the constellation 



APPENDIX II. 191 

Orion aXerpoTrodLov, In modem Greek oKeTpoTrobiov is neither 
more nor less than a ploughshare. Its aptitude as applied to 
the constellation in question is striking. 

*A/xj7, a modern Greek word for ' but/ ' however/ should I 
think be written a/z^ or d/x^, which in classical Greek is 
hardly found save in the compound dfirj-yenrj = Sttoxtovv. The 
meanings, ^ in some way or another/ and ' anyhow/ ' how- 
ever/ are very nearly allied. 

"A^ios is from aycoy according to Liddell and Scott ; whether 
in the sense of 'that which weighs' or Hhat which is esteemed.' 

This derivation prepares us to recognise in ixova^id, modern 
Greek for 'solitude/ i. e. ^ova^la (cLo-rparia for o-rpaTia, Sec), the 
etymology fjLovay-o-La; in jiovd^ or iiowd^, Od. ii. 417, fMovdy-s; 
and in /nomfo), ^ovdyuo = ' I live lonely/ ' I lead a lonely hfe.' 
It seems very likely tha^the termination -d(co is often to be 
thus explained, as standing for an original -dyco. So we have 
Treiprtfo), ' to lead an attempt/ i. e. to attack, tempt, or tease, 
of which the aorist is in modern Greek iirclpa^a ; pointing to 
an original Treipdyo), just as o-wdyco is in modern Greek o-wdCco, 

aor. icrvva^a, 

'Apddtty metaplastic for dpds. This word throws light on 
dpabeco - klv€co, cited by Hesychius. The word dpdda in 
modern Greek means ' turn,' ' order,' ' row/ 

Bdp^apos, probably connected with the Sanscrit Idrharas, 
vdrvarasy which according to Bopp = stultus, and with the 
Latin halhus, lalhutio. The modern Greek (Bep^epos, ' stam- 
mering,' peplSepi^coy ' to Stammer,' is a striking and obvious 
confirm. ation of this etymology. 

BaardCco, This ^s a very interesting word, because its 
etymology involves so many others; and also because, while 
it occurs in almost every Greek writer from the age of 



igZ APPENDIX II. 

Homer to that of the New Testament, we only find its deri- 
vation in modern Greek. Bao-rafo) is plainly a compound 
standing for /3ao-ra ayco, as we may see from jBdo-rayfjia, ^a- 
(TTaKTos, and the modern (really most ancient) Greek aorist 
i^dorra^a. Baora ayco can mean nothing else than 'I bear 
burdens.' But what is the etymology of ^a(rTd ? We have 
the answer in modern Greek, in which /3af&) means ^ I put,' 
and in sense = jSaXXco. l^aara means^ accordingly, burdens, 
loads, things placed on the back of the horse, mule, or ass. 
A word of cognate meaning is iSaVo), which leads us to 
connect iSatVco, /SaW, /Sa^w, and i8t/3a^a). 

Assuming, as I think we may, that this is the radical sig- 
nification of the ancient /Sa^w in the Homeric, dvefMcoXia ^d^eLs, 
TreTrvvfjiepa jSd^eiSj &c., we have a Striking analogy in the 
word Xeyo), which originally meant ' to put,' the English /ay 
and the German kgen being doubtless from the same root. 
Here belong einrd^ofxai, modern Greek ifiTrdCofxat or cfijBdCofiai, 
with the simple verb (3dCofxat els n = curae mihi est, i. e. ^ I put 

myself into it.' With ^d^o\iai, l[md^o\iai^ cf. Trareo)^ efjLJSareci), 

and in modern Greek jBalvco, efXTralvo. For the phonetic law 
on which such changes depend, see p. 37. 

B^aXXo) means, in ancient Greek, ' to milk.' I more than 
suspect this is a vulgar corruption, taken from the mouth of 
the common people, of eK^dXkco, the modern Greek iSyaXXo), 
which is by metathesis for ey^dXXco. BydXkco at^ia means ' I 
bleed,' and jBydWofxat alfia, ^ I am bled.' So /SyoXXo) yd\a, ' I 
milk,' and ^yaXkofiaL ydXa, 'I yield milk.' Compare ^oes 
^bdXkovraL yd\a, Arist. H. A. 3, 21, 2. The etymology of 
/3Sea) from eK-^eco, ^ I put forth,' jSeo) being the transitive of 
^eoiJLac, ' I go ;' ^deWa, i. e. ' the vomiter,' from /S^eXX©, i. e. 
efc^eXXo) for eKjSaXXco, whence also IBdeXvao-co, is more than 
probable. 

BeKos, or fieKKos, which Herodotus says is Phrygian, Hip- 



APPENDIX IT. 193 

ponax Cyprian, for 'bread/ should be compared with the 
Albanian dovKo^ which also means ' bread/ Here too belong, 
as Professor Max Miiller reminds me, the German backen, 
Gebdck, the English bake, 

TeXaurjs and yoLKr]vr] are said to be connected. The Doric 
form yakavos means, in ancient Greek, ' calm,' of the sea, in 
modern, ^ blue,' of the sky. 

Tipivos is another form for yvpivos) compare in modern 

Greek yvpvoi and yepvoa - yupw. 

Viephavi for yi^phaviov means, according to Passow, in the 
Glossary appended to his ' Carmina popularia Graeciae recen- 
tioris,' aquatile. He rightly connects it with dpbalvco. Are 
the names Jordan (supposing it be Indogermanic) and 
^idp^avos not connected with the same root ? This seems 
likely. We must not, however, forget that the yi- in yi^pMvi 
may stand for §t-, i, e. Eia^ 

TXrjyopaj yprjyopa, eyprjyopa OV oyXrjyopa ; a neuter plural, 

used adverbially from yprjyopos (connected with iyelpco, iyprj- 
yopa). The word yprjyopo^, though found only in modern 
Greek, plainly existed in the age of the Septuagint, as is 
proved by the word yprjyopco, which is equivalent in force to 

yprjyopos €lfiL, 

TXia-xpos, 6Xi(T6aLV(o, oXioSTjpos. That these words are con- 
nected seems probable from the modern Greek yXiarpdcD, 

yXicrrpeco, ' tO slide,' yXLarepos = 6Xt(r6r}p6s. 

Topyo), This word is explained by Liddell and Scott to 
mean ' the Grim One.' The mediaeval and modern mean- 
ing of yopyos is simply ' swift.' Xenophon uses yopyos of 
' spirited horses,' and Eustathius of ' a concise style.' Is not 
yopyos connected with iyelpco, standing for yopios? See on 
p. 1 1 6 x^py^ f^^ x^P^^' 

Aidcfiopov in modern Greek = Kepdos, ra didcfyopa = TOKOS : com- 
pare Thuc. iv. 86, 

o 



194 APPENDIX II. 

'EKTTa6aLvofxai, Clem. AI. 23 1, recdves abundant illustration 
from the modern formations, Tradaivco for irdo-xo, ^laOaivcd for 

fiavQavoiy Tvxalvco for TvyxducOj aTToOalvco for aTToOvrjcTKcOy fc. r. X. 

Evpti>€i9, €vpa)s. Are not these words connected with the 
modern Greek /Spw/x?;, IBpcoixdco, stench, stink? If apcofxa be, 
as Pott suspects, connected with the Sanscrit gkrd, ' to smell,' 
that too must stand for an original ypcofia or l3pcop.a. 

zdjBa, lonca, a modern Greek word. Does not this mean, 

' that which goes across,' i. e. AialSa, To dvdlSa, t6 Kard^a 

occur in the sense of dvd^ao-ts and Kard^aa-Ls, So too Zafibs 
seems to be formed from hia^d-, and to mean that which 
^slants' or ^goes across,' as a diagonal. Its derivative 
meaning, ' silly,' ' strange,' ' foolish,' may well be illustrated 
by the English ^ queer,' compared with the German quer, 
A similar etymology is suggested for (dpos, C^pov, (apovco = 
^ wrinkle,' ^ furrow,' ^ to wrinkle,' ^ to furrow,' where we can 
hardly fail to detect the etymology di-dpos, dt-dpop, di.apoco, 

Oavrj is modern Greek for Odvaros, which is, however, 
equally common. eavr) is plainly a more primitive form, 
and is implied in rjfiiBavos, Oaveiv, &c. ; Sdvaros, like KdfiaTos, 
being a derivative, and adjectival or participial rather than 
substantival in form, as we see in dOdvaros; cL Kafxaros^ 

dKdfJiaTOs, 

"1. This, the nominative of i, Iv, or iV, appears in modern 
Greek as the masculine article. ' In some parts of Greece,' 
says Mr. Sophocles (Modern Greek Grammar, p. 65), ' the 
uneducated use 77 for 6, as 77 ddo-KaXos, rj dv8pas,^ But he adds, 
^ This peculiarity does not extend beyond the nominative 
singular.' Surely that is a most significant fact, and proves 
beyond dispute that this rj (or t as I should write it) is cer- 
tainly not the feminine article used ignorantly for the mascu- 
line. Add to this the fact that in Albanian t or t appears 



APPENDIX IT. 



195 



as the masculine nominative of the definite article, and there 
is scarcely any room for doubt as to the identity of the 
modern and ancient 1, 

'ivarl is common in the New Testament and Septuagint for 
Siari; we have no example of this in modern Greek, but Iva- 
Ttafo) means ^ to be obstinate ;' which, if the word be of Greek 
derivation at all, must mean ' to keep asking why?' 

Kdpcrto^. Hesychius and Suidas give this form, but we 
only find the forms iympo-ios, emKapcnos in classical writers. It 
is therefore interesting in modern Greek to meet with 

Kapcrl = ivavTLOv, 

KKatco, Is not this connected with Kpd^co? The modern 
Greek Kkavco, KXavyco, Cretan Kpavco, compared with Kpavyrj, 
seem to render this moxa likely than not. We should think 
too of the German klagen and our cry, 

KoKKoXos means ' the kernel of a pine-cone,' KOKKoXia, ^ land- 
snails.' In modern Greek to, KOKKoka stands for to. oo-tcl. 
With regard to the association of ideas, compare oo-tovv^ 

bo-TpaKov, and dcTTpaKLS = KOKKokos, 

KoXa|. Does not this word mean ^ one who sucks like a 
leech,' perhaps connected with KoWa, KoWdco? The com- 
pound ^pov-Koka^, PpvKoka^, in modern Greek means ' a 
blood-sucker/ ^ a vampire.' Bpovs, according to Hesychius, 
= TTLelv ; and ^pvv elnfiv, Ar. Nub. 1382 = 'to cry for drink.' 
The flatterer is called Koka^ because he is a parasite. 

Koi/ra in modern Greek means 'near.' What is its deriva- 
tion? If Donaldson (New Cratylus, p. 349, 3rd edit.) is 
right in regarding Ka-ra as a compound of Ka = k€v and the 
suffix ra, then, as he points out, there must have been a form 
K€VTd, In this case kovto. may very well be another form of 
K€VTd, the change of o and e being, as we have seen, almost 

02 



jg6 APPENDIX II. 

a matter of course in Greek. From KovTa = *by/ or ^near/ 
we get the adjective koptos, short, which occurs already in 
Byzantine Greek, and kovt^vw, 'to approach;' also KovraKiov, 
* a breviary/ 

Kpvos, KpvcTTaXXos, Kpvepos. In modern Greek Kpvo9, Kpva^ 
Kpvov is the common word for ylrvxpos. 

Avk6(1)(os, dfi(j}L\vKr], Xeuo-o-o), yXavcrcra). With these should be 

compared the modern Greek ykvKocjyeyyeL, yXvKoxapdCeL, *it 
dawns/ 

Ma. In modern Greek this word is used both in a nega- 
tive and positive sense : as in the formulas /xa t6v u-Tavpovj 
and fid TO vat, which latter form of affirmation or negation 
appears to be a relic of heathen times, the obvious derivation 
being pd t6 vatov, vatov being a diminutive for vaov. Ma is 
also used in formulas of supplication, as o-e irapaKaka) pd 
Tov Oedv for TTpbs tov Oeov. Donaldson considers pd as another 
form of prj, and connects both with /xe, ipe, considering mere 
subjectivity to be the primary notion. He also connects pj] 
with pr\v, and the whole series with jue in p^-rd. Now it is 
certainly interesting, and seems to be significant, that in 
modern Greek we have pr]v for /X77, and pk in the sense of 
' with,' for perd. This leads us to the further inference that 
py]v is really for pr]-va, just as r]v appears to be for ena^ Sans- 
crit. Now pr^va is actually found in modern Greek as an 
interrogative particle. 

This leads us to consider the force of va, which Donaldson 
everywhere regards as denoting remoteness from the speaker. 
As a termination he finds it in dvd, tm, and ^V, but nowhere 
as a separate word. But in modern Greek we have vd 
as an independent word in what, if Donaldson be right, is 
its most primary form and signification. Na means ' see 
there,' voilh, vd to, le voila. It is also used (like vt] in Tvvr{) 



APPENDIX II. 197 

as a strengthening demonstrative suffix, e. g. avrdva ; and 
once, if not twice, though modified in the second place, in 

the forms ifxevave, icrivavc. 

In the vulgar, but we cannot doubt extremely ancient, 

forms avTTJvos, avTovvos, avTOVos = avTos, avT-qvrj = avrr], avTovcov = 

avTcov, &c., we find this objective particle v- inserted in the 
middle of a word. 'Am occurs in modern as in ancient 
Greek for the shorter a privative, e. g. dvd^aSos, dvafxeXco, for 

MaXovco means, in modern Greek, ' to fight/ The root is 
a very common one, which, according to Professor Max 
Miiller. we have under a great variety of forms ; which may 
be referred however to two main heads, namely ?2iar- or mal- 
as their respective starting-points. The original sense is to 
grind or crush. FromJt we get, among other words, mri- 
ndmi Sanscrit, \idpva\iai Greek, and I suspect also ficoKos, 
as well as the modern Greek fxaXovco^ and /xaXepo?, which 
means 'quarrelsome/ 3fola and {ivXos are from the same 
root ; and, it need hardly be added, the English ' mill,' which 
in its secondary and vulgar employment bears the same 
sense as fiaXouco. 

Mr}yapr}j TLyapr]^ rlyap, i. e. firj yap rj, rl yap fj, Ttyap, equiva- 
lent in sense to ficov, fxrj. The force of the several particles 
is very plain, and is preserved intact, although the particles 
themselves are for the most part obsolete in m^odern Greek. 
Tap = ye ap is equivalent to ' why then,' pr) has the force of 
^ do not imagine,' and fj = ' or,' introducing the following 
verb : so prjyaprj epx^rai = ^ surely then he is not coming — 
[or] is he?' In German the form of expression is very 
common, and prjyaprj epx^rai might be almost literally trans- 
lated thus, jEt wird ja denn nicht komnien, oder ? Similarly 
Tiyapr] would mean ' What then ? ' or ' Is it really so ?' The 
forms i^vy^prj, Tiyaprj are interesting, inasmuch as they 



J 98 APPENDIX II. 

preserve the old conjunction yap which is elsewhere sup- 
planted by bioTi. 

Mvrjo-Kco and fxvaLo-Kco are modern Greek forms for /xeVo). 
Compare Butjo-kco and the Doric 6vai(TK(o in ancient Greek. 

'Opouo-e, opovo-e. Perhaps both ways of accenting this word 
are allowable. 'Opovae would then be an imperfect from the 
root opo', as in modern Greek ixpvcrovare from xp^^^^ (xp^- 
o-oVo)), while opovo-e would be a first aorist from opovco. In 
modern Greek we seem to have a derivative form opovco in 

yiQvpovo-Lov, i. e. bLopovcriov — opjJLrjfia^ * a sally.' 

UediXov and irerakov. These appear to be but different forms 
of the same word, when we know that TriToKov in modern 
Greek is the regular word for a horse-shoe. We may com- 
pare Tredavpos and Treravpos, The lonic form of TvirdXov is 
TreT-qkov, for which nerLXov, irediXov, would be a natural 
iotacism. 

Uepvj^pi, Tvepaod, I am inclined to connect both these 
words by means of the modern Greek irepvacoj which has the 
sense of the latter. 

Uov, TTov, This word is always written as a proclitic ttov, 
never as an enclitic ttou, in modern Greek; but this can 
hardly be more than a matter of wridng, for its use as a 
qualifying particle is very similar to its classical employment, 
though more restricted. It is chiefly used in such exclama- 
tions as the following : 8v<TTvxr)s nod dvai^ i. e. ' unhappy man 
that he is,' or ri dv(TTvxr)s TTov clvaL, * how unhappy is he.' 
Here it seems a connecting particle, like the French ^ue, as 
* que paresseux que vous etes.' And is it not also a connect- 
ing particle in ancient Greek, e. g. in rdxa nov, Ick^s ttov, 
€L TTov^ idv TTOV, 0T€ TTOV ? Just SO wc say * If that ' in old 
English. Does not this help us to understand how nov has 
come to be used in modern Greek as an indeclinable rela- 



APPENDIX II, 199 

tive ? Let us see whether we have not at least something 
which looks very like this vulgar usage in the colloquial 
language of Aristophanes. In the ' Knights,' Hne 203, the 
aWavTOTTcokr^s puts the question — 

to which the answer is — 

aVTO TTOV \€y€lj 

OTL dyKifXais tols ;(€po"ii' dpTrd^cov (pepet. 

Here Adolph von Velsen (Aristophanis Equites, Leipzig, 1869) 
reads tovto ttov Xey«, being offended at avTos used apparently as 
a simple demonstrative. Mr. W.G.Clark (Journal of Philology, 
vol. ii. p. 314) retains the reading of the MSS., but trans- 
lates ' The thing speaks for itself;' in which case, I presume, 
the TTOV must be translated ' I take it.' But surely this is a 
very stilted expression for so colloquial a style. With regard 
to the meaning of avro, there are innumerable instances 
where it plainly means simply ' that,' even in classical Greek ; 

as, for example, avro ovk eipr^raL, o paXio-ra e^et, Plat. Rep. 

362 d; and avro av €(j)r) TO hiov c'lrj, Xen. An. 4. 7, 7; where 
to say with Liddell and Scott that tovto or eKelm is under- 
stood, is very like begging the question. In the New Testa- 
ment avTos meets us at every turn in the sense of ovto9 or 
eKelvos, and indeed it is almost a necessary demonstrative, 
inasmuch as it holds a middle position between ovtos and 
€Ke7vos, just as avTov, in modern and ancient Greek, holds a 
middle place between Me and eWI. 

Now in modern Greek the sense of avTo ttov Xey«, or, as we 
should prefer to write it, avTo ttov Xeyei, would be very simple 
indeed, and suit the passage exactly. 

The question is, 'What does dyKvXoxy^rjs mean.?' and the 
answer is, * Just what it says;' avTo ttov Xeyet. Surely this is 
better than, ' I imagine it speaks for itself.' 

Alto ttov Xeyfis is a very common phrase in modern Greek ; 



200 APPENDIX II. 

SO common, that I have known and conversed with people 
who invariably prefaced their remarks by this singular ex- 
pression. It means ' as you say/ and implies either that the 
speaker's words have been suggested by some remark which 
the person addressed has let fall, or that he reckons at any 
rate on your agreement with what he says. 

'^TOLx^iov, This word means, as stated on page 94, a ghost 
or demon among the modern Greeks. Yet that is hardly a 
sufficient definition of the word, ^tqix'^lov is, according to 
the popular belief, the principle of life or spiritual power 
which lies concealed in every natural object, animate or 
inanimate. For a very striking and singularly felicitous 
explanation of the origin of this superstition, see an essay 
' On the Origin of Animal Worship ' &c., in the ' Fortnightly 
Review' for May i, 1870, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, who, 
regarding the belief in the continued existence of an active 
personality after death as the origin of all religious be- 
lief, supposes that the names of natural objects, as ' moun- 
tain,' ^bear,' lion,' &c., were first applied to the living in 
default of abstract names, in order to indicate height, shag- 
giness, fierceness, and so forth ; that such metaphors were 
perpetuated in patronymics; that succeeding generations^ 
ignorant of the origin of the metaphor, interpreted it as 
literal fact, and supposed that they w^ere really descended 
from mountains, bears, or lions : hence arose the belief that 
that other self, which continued to exist when the body 
was dead, and needed to be propitiated, was to be looked 
for in animate or inanimate natural objects. The belief in 
monsters would arise from compound patronymics, such as 
would be formed when, for instance, ' a chief, nicknamed 
the Wolf, carries away from an adjacent tribe a wife who is 
remembered either under the animal name of her tribe, or as 
a woman.' 



APPENDIX II, 20I 

Unite with this once universally prevalent superstition, the 
preserving power of the Greek's poetic and vivid imagina- 
tion, and we seem at once to understand the secret of Greek 
mythology and of Greek superstition. The Christian dogma 
has succeeded to a great extent in supplanting the first, but 
it has left the second almost untouched. 

The prfpetdes, Or water nymphs, still survive as vapatdes or 
vepatdes among the modern Greeks ; while Xdpcov^ though de- 
prived of his boat and his office of ferryman, conducts the 
souls of the dead to ^'Adrjs on horseback. But in no respect 
is the belief of ancient Greece more faithfully preserved than 
in regard to the balp.ov£s or o-Toix^la, the personified powers of 
Nature. According to the Greek belief, anything may be- 
come a G-Toix'fiov, from a rock or a river to a bird or a beast. 
Often this (TToixfiov is conceived of, like the ancient daifxccvj as 
the spirit of some departed hero, with whose actions during 
life this or that natural object has been especially associated. 
Sometimes, on the other hand, and this is still more com- 
mon, the powers of nature are personified without being 
identified with any particular human being. Achilles con- 
versing with his horses, or with the river Scamander, is 
exactly the kind of thing which meets us at every turn in 
popular modern Greek poetry. The question which we 
have now to ask is. How old is the signification which the 
modern Greeks give to o-tolxcIov, and how did it arise ? What 
is really the force of o-toix^Iov ? In the first place, we must 
most decidedly difi'er from Liddell and Scott, who regard it 
as a diminutive of o-to^xos, ^ a row,' and leave us to infer that 
because o-toIxos means ^ a row of poles' (or indeed of anything 
else), that therefore the so-called diminutive (ttoix'^Iov might 
mean ^ a little pole ; ' hence they give as the original meaning 
of a-TOLx^iov, the upright rod which throws its shadow on the 
sundial. But (ttolxos would not give us (ttoix^Iov as a diminu- 
tive, but (TToixlov, just as Tolxoy gives us tolxIov ; -^lov is never 



0,02, APPENDIX II. 

used as a diminutive termination. It may cause surprise 
that, believing as we do in the general identity of the modern 
and ancient pronunciation of the Greek language, we should 
have so much difficulty in accepting an etymology which 
would simply require us to regard et as another way of 
writing / ; but here the modern Greek language itself enters 
a most emphatic protest against confusing a short t with the 
diphthongal el, or even with t. Had o-TOLxelov stood for o-roc' 
Xtoi^, it is a matter of absolute certainty, which no one 
acquainted with the principles of modern Greek etymology 
could doubt for a moment, that its Romaic form would have 
been o-roixi But this is not the case. It appears as o-TOLxeiOj 
just as fjLVTjfjLelov appears as fjLvrjfxcLo, and the final o is never lost ; 
€lov and LOU regularly preserve the o, Xov as regularly loses it 
in modern Greek. 2tolx^Iov then is no diminutive form of 
cTTolxos, as it cannot stand for (ttolxIov, Nor, if it were, could 
it mean a litde rod ; it would rather mean a little row. 

There is no doubt about the derivation of aTOLx^lov, it must 
come, like g-toIxos^ from o-retx«, which although only found in 
the derivative sense of 'directing one's steps,' 'proceeding,' may 
have meant originally ' to arrange.' Hence we see its con- 
nection with (jTixos and o-ToxdCoixm, Bearing in mind the 
force of the termination, we see that as t6 fivrjixelov means 
* that which reminds,' 'memorial;' so o-Totxelov might mean 'that 
which arranges,' ' marks out,' ' points.' The o-roLxelov of the 
sundial was the intelligent part of it, compared to a human 
being who observes the progress of the sun in the heavens, 
and hence called also yv^fxcov. Or, to get the meaning still 
more simply from orTelxco, may not o-tolx^Iov have signified 
'that which moves?' referring of course to the shadow 
of the upright rod, rather than the rod itself. That 
(TTOix^hv really had this meaning appears from the phrase 
d^KaTTovv G-TOLx^lov, \. c. supper time when the shadow was 
ten feet long. In any case, the idea of regular, in- 



APPENDIX II. ^03 

tentional, intelligent motion indicative of intelligence is 
contained in the word o-T-et'xco and a-Toixfiov] and it was of 
course the shadow to which life and intelligence were attri- 
buted. There must have been something awfully mysterious 
in the regular progression of that shadow across the dial, 
even to the inventor who had some dim perception of 
natural cause and effect ; but how much more to the ordi- 
XidiTy man who had none. That little upright rod, he ob- 
served with amazement, had a shadow like his own, a second 
self; and this second self was far more knowing (yvuiyLOiv) 
than the little rod which always stood still in the same place. 

Then he would soon observe that rocks and trees and 
animals had also their (rroix^la ; and (rroLxe'lov would naturally 
become with him a name for that living or moving person- 
ahty which he seemed to find connected with, and hidden 
behind all natural objects. Do we not now understand why 
(TKia is used of the spirits of the departed ? and, what is still 
more remarkable, how it is that we have inherited the w^ord 
gnome, plainly connected with yvSjxcov, in the sense of spirit 
or genie ? SKtafw, aKidCofiai, meaning in modern Greek re- 
spectively ' to frighten,' ' to fear,' and the masculine derivative 
(TKios or 'iaKLO£, from o-klu^ are sufficient indications of the ap- 
palling sense of personality with which the Greeks still con- 
tinue to regard shadows. 

But now, how are we to connect this meaning of (ttolx^^ov 
with the Platonic and subsequent philosophic usage of the 
word in the sense of ' element?' This is not very difficult. 
The shadow, the o-tolx^Iou, was the mysterious hidden self, the 
inner personality of all things, shrinking away almost to 
nothing in broad noonday, and slowly but regularly creeping 
out as the sun approached the horizon. Therefore to the 
popular mind, and more or less even to themselves, the 
inquiry of the physical philosophers after the beginnings of 
all things was a kind of necromancy, a search for ghosts. 



^04 APPENDIX II. 

Hence it is that for a long time the Ionic philosophers had 
no difficulty in enduing their crroixfia ox apxal with life and 
motion, or rather they were unable to conceive of them as 
divested of these attributes of personality. It belonged 
naturally to Plato, the great popularizer of philosophy, to 
adopt the people's word (ttoix^Iov, and give it a philosophical 
meaning, thus combating in friendly guise the evepoi Ka\ aXi- 
^avT€s (Rep. 387 c) of the popular superstition. What a 
fine conception do we here obtain of the struggle between 
Greek enlightenment and Greek superstition. To get at the 
bottom of these o-TOixela, these dreadful phantoms, to pene- 
trate to their pi^oifiaTa with Empedocles, and show, as he 
thought he could, that there were but four of them after all ; 
this was, as the physical philosophers vainly hoped, to ' rob 
the grave of victory, and take the sting from death.' 

The word crrotxaa, as applied by Plato to the letters of the 
alphabet, indicated originally not the signs, but the 'living 
voices,' the souls, so to speak, of the letters, just as Utterae 
and elementa litterarum were distinguished by the Latin 
grammarians. That this word (TToix<^'iov would inevitably con- 
nect itself in Plato's mind with his doctrine of ideas, is seen 
at once, and the full force of his polemical attitude towards 
the popular belief appears when we consider that the 
(TToixfia of the common people were the antipodes of his 
own. Shadows were with him the least real, with them 
the most real, of all appearances. His aroix^la were ideas, 
theirs were shadows and reflections. 

It was the very essence of the popular notion of (jtoix^Iov 
that it should exist independently of the object which first 
suggested it. So bears and rams were soon found in the 
sky among the stars, where their outlines were fancifully 
traced. Hence we have the signs of the Zodiac also called 
(TToix'fici (Diog. L. vi. 102). Hence, too, (jToix^la is used by 
ecclesiastical writers, and by Manetho especially, of the 



APPENDIX II. rjo5 

heavenly bodies. Most striking and conclusive is St. Paul's 
use of the word o-Totx^la in phrases like to. o-TOLx^'ia tov Koo-fiov 
(Gal. iv. 3, &c. ; Col. ii. 8, 20). Baur (Christenthum der 
drei ersten Jahrhunderte, p. 49) and Hilgenfeld (Galater- 
brief, p. 66, Das Urchristenthum und seine neuesten Bear- 
beitungen : Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, erster 
Jahrgang, Heft i. p. 99) expressly attribute this sense to 
St. Paul's words, and Hilgenfeld quotes Philo Judaeus (De 
Humanitate, § 3, p. 387 ; De Parentibus Colendis, § 9, ed. 
Tauchn. v. p. 62; De Vita Contemplativa, § i, p. 472), the 
Clementine Homilies (x. 9. 25), and even a Sibylline frag- 
ment anterior to the time of Christ (Orac. Sibyll. iii. 80, ed. 
FriedL), in support of this view. How too, he pertinently 
asks, could St. Paul speak of the o-TOLx^la tov Koo-fiov as the 
guardians or tutors of mankind before Christ, and of their 
being enslaved or in bondage under them, and how could 
he so directly oppose them to Christ unless he attributed 
to them a real personality ? That St. Paul means especially 
the heavenly powers by o-TOLxela rod Kocrfxov is plain from the 
connection in which he places them with the observance of 
'days and months and times and years.' How vivid his 
realization of the conflict between Christ and the o-roLx^'ia 
TOV KOdfjLov may be seen from Ephesians vi. 12: "Ori ovk eanv 

Tjf.ui' rj ttoXt} Trpos aljia kol crdpKa, aXXa Trpos ras dpxas (observe 
that dpxT} is a synonym for aroLx^lov), npos ras i^ovo-ias, Trpos 
Tovs KoapoKparopas tov (TKotovs tov alcovos tovtov, npos to, rrvev- 
fjLaTLKct Tr)s TTOvrjpLas iv to2s inovpavLOLS, 

We are now in a position to understand how o-toix^loco 
in Byzantine Greek comes to mean ' to enchant,' and o-tqix^l- 
ovco, ' to haunt,' o-rotxetdC^, ^ to be haunted,' in modern Greek. 

TvTdos and tltStj. There is every reason to believe, with 
Liddell and Scott, that these two forms are etymologically 
connected. The change of v and t, as well as the change of 



206 APPENDIX II. 

accent, is perfectly regular. An exact analogy as regards 
the meaning is supplied by tfie modern Greek /3aia, ' nurse/ 
which we cannot but regard as connected with fimos, ' little/ 

^^ai/o). In modern Greek, (pBavoa means simply * I arrive/ 
' I come / TO (pSdo-LiJLovj ' the arrival/ It means, however, also 
^ to be in time for,' as ecj^dacra t6 aTfioTrXowv^ * I caught the 
steamer / this is, however, its transitive sense. The ordinary, 
absolute employment of (pBdvco in classical Greek is represented 
in modern Greek by the compound Trpocj^ddvco. The modern 
usage of (p6dvco approaches most nearly to the ancient in the 
phrase 0^ai/et, ' it is enough.' Yet the fact that the compound 
TTpocjyddvco is used by Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides, 
is proof enough that (pOdvco might mean in ancient Greek 
simply ' I arrive/ T come,' T reach' (i. e. my destination), other- 
wise 7rpo(p6dva) would be a pleonasm. The non-recognition 
of this, in modern Greek the common, and, as we believe, 
even in ancient Greek the original meaning of cj^Odvco, has 
caused much difficulty to the commentators on Thuc. 

III. 49. 3, Koi rpLr)p7] evSvs akXrjv dnecTTeWoy Kara cmovdijv, 
OTTcos fxr], (pSaadcrrjs Trjs devTepas, evpcoaL dL€cf)6apii€pr]v Tr]v ttoXlv : 

where we have only to disabuse our minds of the prejudice 
that cl)6a(Td(Tr}s must mean ^ having Jirs/ arrived,' translating 
simply, ' lest, on the arrival of the second, they should find 
the city destroyed,' and all is clear. 

Xaoo. This root appears in the modern x«^^> *to lose,' 

and in XOTr]pi (from xarecxi) = tto^o?. 

"^rjXacjyco, Liddell and Scott derive this word from 'yj/dco^ 
^dXXo), yl/a6dX\a), ylraXdaaco, the -a<pdco being a mere termina- 
tion.' But even mere terminations must have some meaning, 
and we will endeavour to suggest a more plausible and 
complete etymology for ^/^r;Aa</)co than one which barely ex- 
plains one half of the word. 

To begin with what is most obvious: d<pdco, II. vi, 322, 



APPENDIX II, 207 

Sa)pr)m Ka\ dyKvXa t6^' dcjyocovra, is derived simply enough from 
d(f)r], and means ^ to touch/ or * to feel : ' therefore \j/r]X-a(pdco 
means plainly, to touch or feel in a particular manner, and 
implies an adjective ^rjXosj with a corresponding adverb 
ylrr}\a)s Or yj/rjXd. But yj/r]\6sj SO written, is not found. We 
know, however, by the derivation of ylriXos from yj/dcoj that 
this word is merely an iotacism for yl^rjXos, and ought so to be 
written : cf. drraTrjXos, from dnaTdco. Now what does yl/tkos 
or yj/7]\6s according to its derivation mean ? One significa- 
tion is no doubt ' rubbed bare,' but an equally natural one, 
and the prevailing one in modern Greek, is ' rubbed fine,' 
used, for instance, of tobacco that has become powdery from 
keeping, or of small coin. To distinguish this meaning 
from the classical, as preserving most faithfully the ety- 
mology from yj/dcoj we may, if we like, write the word yj/r]\69 
when used in this sense. Hence we have, as a matter of 
course, ^rjkoKoiTco, ' to split hairs,' ' to mince matters ; ' i//-7;Xo- 
o-o<^co, ' to be over-subtle,' no doubt a play upon </)iXoo-o^a) ; 
-^rjkoypdcfxo, * to write fine;' \j^r}XoTpayovd<o, * to sing gently;' 
and an infinite number besides, for the modern Greek 
language has an unlimited Hcence in multiplying such 
compounds. Who, then, can resist the conclusion that 
•sj/r]Xa<pda) means ' to touch lightly,' ' to feel about one,' like 
the German herumtappen. Its usage in ancient Greek bears 
out this etymology most strikingly. Xenophon, Eq. 2. 4, 
uses it in the sense of ^ stroking,' Latin palpare. In Aris- 
tophanes, Pax 691, we have iv o-kotco yfArjXa<pdv TCL TrpciyfiuTa: 

comp. Eccl. 315, and Plato, Phaed. 99 b. In Odyssee 
ix. 416, we have it used of the blind Cyclops : — 

KvKXcoyfr de arevaxcov re kol aydivcov obvvrjcriv, 
Xepo-l "^riXacjiocoVy drrb p,€P Xidov eVXe 6vpdcou, 
AvTos S' ehl Bvprjcn KaSi^ero x^^^P^ TTcrdo-o-as 
"El Tivd TTOV per oecrcrt XdjSoL (rrelxovTa Svpa^e. 



208 APPENDIX II. 

Compare also Acts xvii. 27, ir^Tclv t6v Kvpiovy d apa -^rjka^j]- 

<T€LaV aVTOV KOL €VpOl€V, 

s^rji\a(j)rj(rLs is used by Plutarch in the sense of * tickling/ 
and the essential condition of tickling is, as we know, a light 
touch. 

This is one of those cases where a knowledge of modern 
Greek enables us to pronounce with certainty for a deriva- 
tion which it would seem has not so much as suggested itself 
to philologers who have not made modern Greek their study. 
It is one of those extremely simple and obvious etymologies 
which, when once observed, make us wonder how they could 
have so long lain hidden. 

^rjipL^a, In modern Greek, \l/r](f)d(o means not * to vote,' 
but * to care for ' or * regard ; ' apparently from ylrrjcj^os, in the 
sense of cipher^ as we say, ^ to reck not,' ' reckless/ &c. 



INDEX 



OF 



GREEK AND ALBANIAN WORDS. 



'6.^a\€, p. 189. 
ajSjSas, 107. 
ai85e\Aa, 12. 

a^pdyco, 119. 
a^pdfxvXov, 12. 
a^pSravoVf 12. 
a^pvou^ 12. 
ayairdei, 72. 

iSos, ayaubs, 29, 1 04, 

189. 
ayyeWw, 1 89. 
a77iX<W5 12. 
a770Sj a7Kos, 29. 
d7epa)X0S, Si. 
a7/ca0^ 31. 
ayKovXa, 20. 
^yKQvpa, 20. 
&yovpa, 122. 
^7oupos, 189. 
ay poLKu, 190. 
dSara, 1I4. 
d56p(^bs, 36. 
2i5€(r0ai, 28. 
dere, 1 1 8. 
aae, 113. 
d0ia, del, 123. 
ai dz/, 25. 

oT7a, alyavj 71, 74, 75. 
aiel, 12. 
atej/, aies, 7/* 
aierbs, 12. 



AioAou, 45. 
aiVi/s, 25. 
aidiVLos, 105. 
aldopa, 25. 
CLKoKovdco, 103. 
d/c^^, dK|U^i/, 35, 102. 
aKoveis, 116. 
aXdKaipais, 143' 
a\46oo, 36. 
aKei^ct)^ 30. 
a\€ijjLiJ.drioVy 26, 
aXerpi, 1 90. 
a\€rpoTT6diov, I90. 

ax-fjO-ns, 117. 

aXXd^ifjLou, -aroSf 1 08. 
dW' tfxdTLov, 26. 
6,Xoyou, 93. 
''AAu, 108. 
aXvcpavros, 35. 
aXcpLTOVf 36. 
a^ua, 12. 

a/jLaLfidKeros, 25. 
^AjuaXeK, 30. 
auapria, I02. 
ajUL^XaKiaKo), 37. 
'Afi^paKia, 37. 

aix^Xyw, 35. 
afi€pyw, 35. 
oLfiecTos irpSracrLS, 99. 
dyUT;, d^77, 190. 
d^oA7a5, 35. 
d/io>7?7, 20, 35. 

P 



^/^oi/, 113. 
avd^ados, 196. 
avdOe/iia, 1 5. 
avaOv^iacis, 93* 
avai^aipo}, 12. 
di/aA.uo'is, 93. 
avdfjL€(rov, 89. 
^i^56Te, 136. 
av€Xvirr]r7j, 144* 
^z/0€, 36, 120. 
^i/i, 137. ^ 

avoiyo(T(pdXL(Tfxa., 1 44' 
avTiaira(TiJLa, 1 03. 
gt^/oy, 191. 
oLireipov, 93. 
a7r€Kpi6rj, 79. 
'AtteXXccu, 24. 
dTTo, 102, 104. 
aTroKSrrjcra, 1 46. 
dTT?) fiaKpSOev, 1O5. 
"ApoL^as, 74. 
apc{ 76, 99, 
apd^a, 19 T. 
apaicccris, 93. 
'ApttTTid, 30. 
6,pd€fi€P, 129. 
ap€r^, 96. 
*'Ap77, 71. 
^p0T, 130. 
apL^nXos, 118. 
apfiaOia, 12, 
apfxara, 1 06. 
ap/JLarcoXhs, I06. 



2,10 



INDEX. 



ap6co, 191. 
'apri,^ 183. 
apx^ojs, 107. 

apX^, 93. 
^pufia, 193. 
as, 103, 107. 
ao-di, 133. 
a(TKa\coTras, 74. 
c«o-7ra/c, 132. 
ao-raxw, 12. 
a(TTa<pls, J 2. 
d(rrepo7r^, 12. 
arao, 131. 
aTi-h€p€, 132. 
arte, 132. 

^27. 

avyhy, 31. 
avTOLva, 196. 
avriov, 24. 
auTis, 38. 
avTovuos, 196. 
avToSi foLrhs, 1 32, 
auto, 29. 

^4)65, 103, 186. 

a0' o§, 40. 
a^f/, 24. 
el^'O, 134. 

^dyya, 24. 
/3a(c^, 192. 
/Bdi'a, iSai^s, 205. 
i8c£A6, 185. 
^aXiKios, 29. 
PaXrhs, 83. 
^dv(a, 192. 
^dp^apos, 191. 
Bapicoj/a, 24. 
^a(n\4av, 74. 
^acriXeas, 'J I, 74* 
Paai?K€vei, 92. 
iSao-iAefs, 1 43. 
fiaaiXicraa, 106. 
^aard^w, ^aara, 1 84, 

192. 
i8aT€?z/, 30. 
^avKaMov, 24. 

^axoy, 115- 
^ydWco, 192. 
fibdWw, 192. 



)35eAAa, /85eAi;0'o'«, 192, 
iSSew, 192. 
^eiKari, 29. 
^eKhs, ^€KKOSi 192. 
^e\6va, 12. 
ySeArepos, /SeAr^s, 83. 
^^jx^pas, 30. 

^ip^QpOV, lie 

^er, 131. 
^i(pvpa^ 29. 
iSew, 192. 
)8^, /3^, 18. 
^77^a, 16. 
^i^dCcv, 192. 
^ledii/, 132. 
BiAapas, 30. 
BtAiTTTTos, 30. 
;8A6>a),^3I. 
/BArjaKovyi, 30. 
^oOpos, 12. 
/8oi, ^or)6e7v, 16, 
fio\e7, 189. 
^oKofxai, 45. 
fioTO-xv, 118. 
fiov\€L, l3ou\r], 15. 
^ovvh, 115. 

^OVpKOSi 29. 

fipdxos, 29. 

^P^, 37- ^ 
/Spe/ce/fe/cel, 19. 
^p€X€i, 103. 
^pifa, 29. ^ 
^pidco, ^CLpvQca, 2 2. 
;3poX7?, 117. 
jBpvKoXa^, 195. 
/8pc^,u77, 193. 
l3v^Kos, (ii^Xos, 22. 
^yCao?, 30. 
/3i;0os, 12. 
^VTLVT], 30. 
^uoKaXiov, 24. 

7a, 119. 
7afa, 30. 
7af, 118. 
7ara, 30. 
7a7/ia, 31. 
7aAaf<os, 33. 
7aAaj/bs, 33. 
7a/), 96, 197. 



yapyaXicav, 29. 
ydpyvpa, 29. 
75o£'7ros, 187. 
75uftz/ais-, 75i;co, 1 44. 
7€Aai/'^s, 117. 
yeXda-ifxov, 80, 105, 108. 
yeXXcio, 1 89. 
7eAa)z/, 73. 

76^iX<^» I05- 
y^paKiP, 109, 
yeptpos, 193. 
7€p?/ft;, 193. 
yepGPTSi 74- 
7€pb5, 32. 
yevaaadai, 188. 
yi(pvpa, 32. 

7^» 145. 
77776 v^s, 16. 
7ta, 32. 
7iaiz/w, 32. 
ytaKioy, 32. 
7ia^a, 145. 
yidarr^, 1 35. 
yiarphs, 31. 
7i7as, 16. 
yivvost 30. 
yiovpovcTLov, 198. 
yiccKw, 32. 
yXuKw, 31. 
7Aapos, 31. 
yXeiTw, 29. 
yX4(papov, 29. 
yX4(p(Tw, Xevacrca, 31. 
yX-nyopa, 193. 
yXiarpaipco, 1 93. 
yXia-xpos, 193. 
yXvKO(p^yy€i, 31. 
yviQo), 31. 
yvcaijioiv, 202. 
ypoopico, 117. 
Tofjioppa, 30. 
7op7^s, 193. 
yovXia, 31. 
70UJ/, 20. 
7ou?'a?ft:a, 1 18. 
7oG7ra, 29. 
yovpyovpas, 29. 
ypdfjL/jLara oide, 1 84. 
ypdc^op, 121. 
ypa<povjjLev€, 121. 



INDEX. 



211 



ypa(povp^ui, 121. 
ypacpre, 121. 
ypaipLniara, 8 1. 
ypd\pL/j,0Uj 8i. 
yprjyopos, 193. 
ypoiKTcra, 1 19. 
7/3 w^a, 193. 
yvaXov, 32. 

7(£;/, 20. 

5a, 114. 
AaiSiS, 29. 
oa7/caj^w, 31. 
dai/mu>v, 94, 20I. 
5az/ouj/, 130. 
BdpKva, 31. 
ddrvXo, 119. 
§e, 5ej/, 144. 
Seix^o?, 118. 

h€VOV/JL€P€, 118. 

deucoy 72. 
d4^ov, 79- 
5eoi', 132. 
Bepcis, 183. 

s^H 135. 

A6^5, 31. ^ 

Seuoj, 24. 

d€xofJLai, deKOfxai, 38. 
SevJ/oj, 24. 
Arjfias, 16. 
A-nfirjT-npj 16. 
dijfjLiovpyos, 98. 
Sia^Ba, 194. 
SiajSoAos, 105. 
diaQrjKT], 16. 
^Laipo}, 32. 
dLaL(pvpa, 32. 
5ia«:iOJ/, 32. 
didXsKros kolv)], 1 1 5. 
diafMeaov, 184. 
5ia j'a, 89. 
Smpos, 194. 
Siara, 12. 
Siara^co^ 83. 
Sia^ei/Teuo-ai^, 149. 
Bidcpopop, 193. 
AiSu^uos, 16. 
SiSo), 8i5oz/co, 116. 
Siepbs^ 32. 
diLO'xyp'-C^To, 187. 



dtKaiobocria, 1 03. 

5i/caio2/, Sza'ibj/, 26. 

SiKAoTTOS, 113. 

JiAz, 132. 

diopter iiios, 97. 

Siof, 119. 

5i(ri7z/aTos, 1 5. 

Jirr, 129. 

SicaKcc, 32. 

Sfci);^i/a), 118. 

5Jz^&>, 116. 

5o|as, So^aty, 71, 78, 82. 

hoVKduT], 20. 

dpaKos, 168. 

dpOGlCLy 184. 

^ii, 132, 135. 

5wa>, 72. 
Swo-t;, 185. 

eav, 25. 

lauT^j/, 97, 132. 
iyajULT^Ka, 122. 
€77iX<^, 103, 185. 
eyvoiais, 143. 
eyvcioKav, 184. 
e7cbi/, 30. 
eSe, 1 10, 130. 
6^56x0^^, 79- 
iboXiov(Ta, ^6. 
id6vT€s^ 13. 
eSci), 103. 
eSoDKa, 80. 

€€€€»/, 77' 

e6i|6z/, 118. 
e^pov, 127. 
edrjKa, 80. 
er^e, 87. 
e'/ySw, 116. 

€iSi/cbs, 97. 

elepeos, 1 06. 
€iAa>, 26. 
el^ai, 71, 108. 
efr/ai, eTz/e, 79, I08. 
e^uras, eJvra, 1 1 7. 
eipy^r, 26. 
eipcvueta, g*j. 

€is, 103, 187. 

eTo-at, 71, 108. 

e'/x^o), 118. 

P 2 



eKavov, 1 10, 123. 
l/cerj/os, 13. 
e/cf, 122. 

iKiradaipoiLLai, 1 93. 
€Kpv0€, 187. 

6KCU, 118. 

eAa, 115. 

€\dKrL(r€, 17. 

eA67a, 72, 83. 

lAe|es, 72, 83. 

iXexOrjKa, 72, 80. 

eAA€i/os, 113. 

"^EAfjUTTos, 24. 

e/^a, 12 2. 

i/JLUSi 71. 

ifi^areo}, 37. 

i/j,fi6\iiJLOS, 30. 

e^e, 134. 

e>ez/a, 71, 78. 

€iu€pa, 18. 

'E|ayUavou)/A, 1 7. 

kfiwd^o/jLai, fid^ofiaif I92. 

ilLLTraij/co, 37. 

kfiTToTKa, 12 2, 123. 

ifjLiropos, ^6. 

4lJ,(pavi(eiv, 1 85. 

€uavct}, 28. 

eVSeAexeia, 37. 

6r/5o?/, 37. 

6r^S(^a'0ia, 37. 

iudevrey, 38. 

€vd(Tx^, 119. 

iy 07} ares, 1 1 9. 

6P0L^€, 118. 

evrepa, 36. 

evrepi, 127. 

ivrevOep, 38. 

ej/rbs, 37. 

iprvpcc, 37, 72. 

epdoTTiop, 187. 

i^airipTjs, i^aicpprjs, 1 1 8. 

E^drfiLa-is, 93. 

e|o/iop7z^i;^i, 35. 

i^vTrpidO), 93. 

iTrai^&j, 103, 184, 187. 

€7r7}^o\os, 16. 

iirKTTrjfjLrj, g*J. 

iiriaTexpa, 24. 

67rrdl\ 109. 

eirooKaP, 1 06. 



2^Ii2 



INDEX, 



130. 
ipi/jiriTa, 19. 
spiVy 74. 
epKOfiai, 118. 
epos, €pou, 74. 

€p(T7)Vj II. 

cpojs, 104. 
^aa, 12 2. 
eVe^ 13. 
eVeTs, 71. 
IcTEva, 71, 78. 

€Sy?»f, 117. 

e(To, 79, 82, 107, 
iaovy 120, 125. 
€(TTddr], 185. 
iarddny, 1 03. 
eo-i/, 13. 

eT€LV€pe, 121. 

Iroi/uafcu, 1 03. 
eros-, 29, 132, 
€L>76?/c)y, 104. 
6i/5cy, 102. 
evdv/JLOs^ 24, 
6U01/S, 24. 
evKaipiav, 1 8 7. 
€v\a^r)s, 186. 
€v\oy(v, 187. 
€vpr)KaVy 106. 
EvpoK\v5ot}j^y 21. 
€UTuxr;s, 23. 
€V(ppaip6jjLevoSj 1 8 7. 
evxapi'O'ria, 23. 
6uxapio-T(5, 103, 106. 
€>' eros, 39, 132. 
€(^0^s, 37. 

#^. 13. 

e^'Ci', 24, 

€ftJ, 107. 

IciJpa, 25. 
iwpcLKav, 106, 

fa)3a, 194. 
Zd^aArjs, 33. 
fa^by, 194. 
CaAo^, 33. 
Capi(p7]s, 33. 
Capos, 194. 

C^, 119. 

fe?os, 119. 



Ceo-rbs, 185. 
Zeus, 33. 
Cnrdei, 12. 
^?a, 120. 
C?os, 119. 

C^i€pha\4os, Cfiriyixa, (fii- 
KphSf (fLLiyvrj, Zfivpi/a, 

33. 
fop/ca5zo*', 31. 

C^pl»3i. 
^ov(f)d\a, 120. 
(wv(pioPf 12, 106. 

??» 71. 
^^, 197. 
rjyovjULepos, 1 03. 
i]ypa(f)a, 1 1 7. 
f/5e, 16, 130. 
'HAl, 30. 
TJAfcufre, 1 07. 
riix^XaKoVj 37. 

T]lii^paTOV, 12. 

rjfxovv, ^2. 
¥i}jLTr\aKou, 37. 
^^^0^ 35. 
r]^evpcc, 105, 184. 
^TTza, 117. 
^p^a, 36. 
fjp^aro. III. 
^pxa, 116. 

7]p(i3TT)(Ta, 14. 

r}vdufJLos, 24. 
rjupov, 14. 
-nvrvxei, 45. 

0^,87,88,90, 130. 
dayarepa, II 4. 
^ai', 130. 
0az/77, 194, 175. 
0ds, 130. 
^6, 87. 
0e?os, 119. 
0eA6t ya, 87. 

d4\€lS €^ir(DIJ.€P, 187. 

06 A CO z/a, 87. 

^eVoj, Beipco, 67va, 24. 

0€ou, 120, 12 2. 

QidLS, 94. 

6ea?, 24. 

dewpoQ, 183. 



OrjKdpiov, 32. 
0i77aj/aj, 31. 
QKijxixivos, 72. 
^Aiif/is, 105. 
0b^, 129. 
0(Jz/a, 129. 
0oVt, 129. 
doarre, 130. 
dpafifjievos, 72. 
dpiyyos, 87. 
dvfjLOVKOVj 120. 
0ft)^a, 24. 
0c«;y, 129. 
dapia, 143. 
0wpft), 144, 183. 
OcaaiVj 130. 
0WT, 129. 

r, 194. 
laipco, 32. 
IdKLov, 32. 

farp^s, 31. 

£77t, 12 r. 

477), £7(j/, 127. 

'/7/cmi*, 121. 

iSe, 16. 

^5tov, 103. 

fSot;, 104. 

i^P^^? 32. 

Idhs, 24. 

Udyco, 119. 

iK/iidajy iKfjLaSf 35. 

f'/cajo-f, 107. 

^At;, 26. 

^AAcy, 26. 

IfjidrLa, 103. 

l/jLEpa, 18. 

'/z/a, 89, 104, 109. 

iVari^ Ij/arid^cDy 194. 

fz/J/i, 122. 

'/yvos, 30. 

fz/ras, Xptu, 117. 

lovfuVy LOVfjLwv, 125. 

tVep, 2 2. 

'/pT^z/, 26. 

1<pQLfX0S, 4. 
il//OS, 22. 

lob, iojz^, loovya^ 109, 
116. 



INDEX, 



213 



'k, 114. 
Ka, 115, 130, 
KaBeXsy 104. 
KaOeXov, 1 1 8. 
Ka6i((a, 103. 
KadLCTTahco, 12. 
Kad6\ov, 97, 118. 
/cat, re, 25. 
Kai5z/os, 25. 
Kaipios, 34. 
Katpos, 109. 
KuTpos, 118. 

KaKOppL^lKOL, 144. 

KuXa, 1 46. 
Ka\avpoi}\p, 24. 
KoKos, 118. 
Ka\a>Sf no. 
Ka;U, 130. 

Kd/J.L\0S, 17. 

Kd/jLTToaos, 89. 

K&J/, 109. 

Kttveis, 99. 

KaTTPEy 119. 

KapKEai, 39. 
^apo'i? 195.^ 
Kaar€\\Q)iuL€Vos, 1 08. 
Karafiodpa^ 12. 
Karai^aij/oo, I2. 
^a^^ep, 135. 
/carexw, 105. 
KaroLKoo, 103. 
Kau/ccc?/eSj 20. 
/cauxScratj 78. 
/caij/is, 24. 
/ce, 25, 88, 115. 
Kcri/os, 34. 

K€\OjULaL, 189. 

/cepioz/, 15. 
/ces, 115. 

K6T6, 134. 

K6<pa\as, 71. 
ic?, 130. 
KidfJiovVy 144. 
KLavcc, 199. 

KL^OVpLf 20. 

Ki9a)v, 40. 

KIHOV, 124. 
KiVoJ^, 34. 

Khdvi^os, 21. 
/CfJ/eoj, 34. 



KiS, 34. 

KXaiw, Kpd^oo, I95. 
KXefos, 23. 
KXeis, kX^s, 15. 
KX^Lrhs, KXvrhs, KXrjrhs, 

IB, 2 2. 
Kv7cra, r^Kva, 1 45. 
KOL/jLco/jiaL, 103. 
/cotJ^T) SictAe/cTOs, 21, 10 1. 
Koipavos, 34. 
kSkkuXos, KOKKaXtty 195. 

KOKdiVT], 35. 

kSXu^, 195. 
KoXacTLSj 105. 
KoXXovpa, 20. 

KoXXoVpLOl/, 185. 

Kovra, 195, KOfra, 118. 
KOTiddij 108. 
KOTviXa, 35. 

KOpaKKTTLKdj 1 5 7. 
KOpdcLOVj 106. 

Kovpp^VLa, 131. 
Ko^ofxriXo, KopdfxirXo, 37. 

KOpvCCCO, 37. 

Koravcpos^ 37, 1 18. 
/cove, 119. 
KovXXhs, 20. 
KovvBep, 138. 
KovrdXtov, 20, 83. 
Kovcpos, 15. 
Kpe^Pdriov, 12. 
Kpidpi, 118. 
/cpie, 199. 
/cpowbs, /cpTJi'T?, 33. 
Kpv{3co, 106, 187. 
/cpuos, 195. 

KpVCpVKd/iLiC/Xa, I4I. 

/cpite, 132. 
KTovirco, 119. 
Kvdpa, 40. 
kvkXos, 12. 

KvTTpOS, 21, 
KVpLOS, 103. 

Kxoz/Sio-ray, 38. 
ft^^/^^a? 35. 
/cwAe, 123. 
Kcos, 71. 

XdCo/mai, 29. 
Xd/jLp(v, 116. 



Acipos, 31. 

Xavpos, Xd^pos, 24. 

Xeydfievos, 72. 
A€760-ai, 72. 
Aeyovras, 72* 
Ae7oui/, Xeyovv€j 72. 
A€|6, 72, 78. 
Aelou, 72; 78. 
XevaacOf 31, 
Aew, 30. 
X7]cn7]s, 16, 
Xiyvphs, 22. 
XiddpioUy 106. 
Aios, 30, 116. 
Aiovo-ms, 21, 121. 
Aoy^s, 89. 
XoL/jihs, XL/j,hs, 28. 
Xoiirhu, 97, 104. 
XvK6(p(MS, 31, 196. 
Xv(r€/j,€vaLy XvaovfjLovv, 
129. 

jUa, 196. 
fidyovXou, 1 75. 
/^a^, 89. 
fMaifido), 25. 
fxatfjiov, 7* 
fiaXephs, 1 9 7. 
fjidXicrra, 99. 
/j.aX6pcDy 197. 
fia^iXas, 1 15. 
Mdpr7]s, 71. 
^^pe, ^TT-pe, 37. 
fibaXacpdKey 131. 
^&e, ^61, 135. 
Ate, 109, 133, 196. 
fM€,^fj.€ye, f^eyer, 133. 
(JLedXos, 115. 
fx4yeBos, 41, 46. 
/jieOavpiou, 39. 
/meXLcro-a, 1 18. 
/j.eXi(T^oo, 32. 
fieXio-CLy, 116. 
^lefx^pds, 30. 
/xepLKOs, 97. 
Atep/ov, 15. 
Mecrapovpia, 116. 
^ueVa ets, io6. 
^era, 107. 
fd.eTaP0L€cc, 105. 



214 



INDEX. 



ix-nyapl, 197. 

mVj P^va, 96;, 196. 

IMa, 185. 

IjlIkov, 131. 

/niKprj, 12. 

M%^i35, 136. 

,a\o7oVf 116. 

fxoLpQypdcpVijJLa, 146. 

jnoXv^doSj jjl6m^os^ 21. 

fiova^ia, 191. 

fx6vcLxd TcoP€y 143. 

/uo?'')/, 185. 

^oz/o7ej/% 73. 

Moi5, )UOi, 83, 

fiovde, 215. 

fiovi/a^, 191. 

MojJ^'os, 45. 

p.ovpya, 20. 

fio g/LLTyjL, 20. 

fJMVpsxovpi^ca, 20. 

MoGcra, fiolaa^ 27. 

fiovXTepos^ 20. 

fXTTov^ovvas, 33. 

M^7«. 31. 

^ly^ao;, 30. 

fj.VKdofj.ai., iJL7]Kdo}Jiaif 2 2. 

jJLVaOS^ fM(TOS, 22. 

fiva-ra^, fj^dara^, 12. 

Mc^^P^. 37. ^ 
Moijpos", fxavpos, 24. 
Mcoj ?>a7?s, 131, 

z/a, 87, 196. 
vdvder, 135, 136. 
rapa/§6S, i^€p€"/'§es, 200. 
pdieKLV, 131. 

^t' ,^^'r^j ^°^' ^33- 
veixLKovv, 131. 

vepov, I'epoy, v'opoV} lo6, 

118. 

V 4(^08 y yuicpos, 31. 

v7]Q(io, jpeOo), 31. 

i/?)(7Ti3; vr}arr}s, 14. 

y), 120, 126, 135, 136. 

j/mj/z, 137. 

z//'i87&j, 33. 

^iC^'^5 ^35- 
j/ioCra, 119. 
?/oaw, 83. 
j/Juo, 119. 



i/f/CTos afjioXy^, 35. 
z/uva, T19. 

^ei/LTeveip, 106. 
lepbs, |?7pos, 15. 

07/^os, 0770s, 36. 
oSomo^at, 187. 
odvPTj, codiVf 2 2. 

oi; 97. 

olvdpiv, 115. 

ofos, 27. 

okevOepos, 1 18. 

oAioSf 116. 

oAos, '6Xooy, 103, 184, 

187. 
oAa?s, 97. 

dkoaaTfMarcoiiJiev'rj, 14I. 
ofxade?, 31. 
o ^iKporepos, 186. 
6ixop(pos, 118. 
ovdpioVi 185. 
opeipara^ 80, 81. 

6pexd>pV^^f 12. 
oVra, c^j^re, 1 17. 
ovTas, 72. 
oz/uf, 12. 
oVco, 12. 
o^vfiacpov, 21. 
«>, 13- 

OTToy, 185. 

OTTTOS, 38. 
OTTCpls, 38. 

opefis, 99. 

^P^iXa, opvixos, 33. 

opoGo'6, 197. 

OTf, 97. 

broLfjioSf 118. 
ovhd<pr, 132. 
oh^d.vow, 133. 
ovdcicfyrove, 13 1. 
ovdovK, 131. 

OVXOfJi^VOS, 20. 
o5i/, 20. 

ovTrepyiairovv, 133. 
ovpapoBpo/jLos, 141. 
ovpavhsy 103. 
ovcTLcvBrjs, 99. 
6'xe77, 38. 
oxi 5a, 115. 



TratSii/, 116. 
TrduTore^ 18 1. 
7rapa56i7|Ua, 99. 
irapat, 12. 
TrapdKXrjToSy 1 6. 
7rapaTr\7](nov, 1 03. 
II apis, 71- 
Traca, I44. 
Traorxa, 1 1 9. 
warepas, 71. 
tteBiXgp, TreraXov, 1 98, 
irevTLKos, 118. 

^^f>j 135- 
irepyiaiTovVf 1 33. 
TrepiTrarare, 12. 
TrepKTo-orepov, I04, 1 86. 
TrepfCTao'eiy, 1 04. 
Jlepcres, 1 09. 
TreVe, 135, 181. 
TTiai/ft), TTitti^cii?, Trm^&j, 12, 

81. 
TTieYoj, Trmfco, 1 18. 
irUaai, 187. 
TTLarevca els, 1 83. 
irlaTLS, irvaris, 22. 
irL(TTis, 103. 
TrAa/ca, 1 09. 
irX^fw, II, 23, 29. 
ttXtjp, 103. 
7rXr}po(popco, 1 86. 
irXiicria, 1 44. 
irp^jiia, 116. 

TroSeSiX*^^ 1 1 5* 
TToros, 89. 
TTfJ/ce, iroKa, 34. 
TTopecrx^, 120. 
ttScttlp, 115. 
7roT6 jitoi;, 183. 

TTOV, TTOU, 184, 198. 
TTOl/a, 120. 

irovX, TTovXos, ttojAos, 

132. 

TTOO lJi4v€lS, 183. 

"^^0^7-, 37.^ 
TrpayfjLaTiKOtJS) 1 04. 
7rpa/Lia, 30. 
TTpdrr], 117. 

^f>^% 135- 

Trpri(TTis, 7rpi(Trr,s, 16. 

irpoareppri^ep, 1 86. 



INDEX. 



315 



TTpO(TKOj.t,}Xa, 113. 

TrpSraCLSi 99. 
Trpovara, 1 20. 
npovKa, 27. 
TTuaAov, TTueAor, 1 1 8. 
Triy/cj/cocis, 93. 
TTvKas, 22. 

TTVpTTO\Vtfx4vOS, lo8. 

Trvrivri, 30. 

TTcDs 06J/, 99. 

paxov\a, 29. 

P^, 132. 

pefo;, II, 23, 29. 
p€^ofj,eu, 116. 
peTToiuL, pacpduLoy, 12. 
P^TAta, pT7X^w» 186. 
piC«> ^P'(aj 29. 
pL^Khv, 144. 

podoKOKKlUOS, 141. 

P^7X^^j pTs, 22. 

pUTTTCC, pilTTCa, 22. 

po)^, 129. 

o-a, 131, 145. 
crdfjLepe, 12 J. 
(Tapavrapyd, II 6. 
eras, 71^ 109* 

(re, V, <T€/jLowdeT, 132. 
ae^aSi 29. 
:§ei877pos-, 29. 
tje^o/jLai, a€Vo/jLai, 29. 
cefs, 7l' 
(TLTepiv, 118. 

(TKCL<pOS, 12. 

0-KeAis, o-xeAls, 39. 

JSfCT^TTiCOl/, (TKLTVOOV, 1 6. 

(T/cia^co, 203. 

o-KiCa', 39- 

(TKLK^oct}, 34. 
(TKoKadfxa, 29. 
crKo\€Lh, 39. 
(TKoria, 184. 
(7/coTO^'aJ, 92. 
(TKvKaKLOv, 116. 

(TKV(pOS, 12. 

crixi^L^ov, 80. 
(TolBeco, 29. 
(Tou7ria?s, 83. 



(TovcrdiJLi, 83. 
o-ra06iF, 187. 
(TradephSy 1 06. 
ardrrov, 79. 
o-rare, 1 35. 
o-T67r77, 131. 
arepl^, l'j6. 
crT7]\7], crrvAos, 2 2. 
(TT7]pLy^y (TTvpa^, 22. 

(TTLXOl TTOXlTLKoI, IIO. 
O-TOiX^^OZ/, 93, 99, 200. 

(TTpoyyvAojULopcpo'jrrjyov- 

i/os, 141. 
crvyKvpiav, 187. 
av^rjreTv, 187. 
av^vye, 22. 
(TvuT7]pov(n, 143. 
(T<poyy4pLV, 118. 
o-X^/Wa^ 94. 
(TCDfjLaTovpyr](T€Sj 141. 

ra, I33, = a, I15, I45. 
rai^g, 134. 
ra^is, 94. 
rap^v^oo^rap^ioo^Tpa^iiio, 

116. 
Tapr7](X(Tos, 1 6. 
rd(J(T(a, 37. 
ravrhp, 1 16. 
re, 129, 133. 
reKPT), 118. 
reKvvs, 107. 
T€jx-dr, 134. 

Tf>e, 134- 
rero'apes, 1 18. 
T6^e, reVer, 133. 
T^ayydpia, 108. 
"^C^ tC^^. 121. 
r^LKua^ Kv7aa, 145. 
T^ou/xas, 108. 
T77, rV, 75- 

T7)l/0S, 34. 
Ti, 120, 133. 

Ti Ao77)s, 89. 

Ti€Tpi, 137. 

TijU-er, 134. 

TfOl/, 121. 

Tii/as, 117. 
TLTTora, II. 
T^7)^a, Tfj.v,yfia, 30. 



Toiyapy 99. 
to;/, 116. 
To^f, 134. 
Tovfia, 126, 127. 
Tous^oyy, I45. 
Tovrop, 116. 
To%eV, 134. 
Tpayi, 118. 

'^P^? 135- 

Tpeiri/bs, repiTvos, II6. 

Tpovira, 83. 

Tpdoyo), 182. 

T-O-OU^W, 33. 
TO-Xf, 119, 121. 

rvKdurj, hovKo.vr], 20. 
Tupaj/z/os-, KOLpapoSy 34. 
Tuy, 27. 

TVT, 134. 

Tco;/, 109. 

TWf'^ ToVe, ToVa, 134. 

Tcopa, 89. 

Twpa it\4ov, 120. 

uaAos, 32. 

^'I^, V7jp(a, 16. 

uios, 28. 

uAt;, 21, 99. 

uo, 126. 

v-rrdyd), 103, 183. 

virdpxc^, gg, 187. 

uTTaros, 25. 
vTrevOupos, 45. 
ifTTodrjinap, III. 
viroKei/iiepoUj 99. 
vo-eTs, 115. 
^6r, 134. ^ 
{/;//i(7ros, v^rjXos, 25. 

(pdyeaai, 187. 

(paiperai, 99, 

(paipoo, (piyyco^ 25. 

(pe^ofxat, (pe/Bycc, 29. 

<pep€(Ta,L, 25. 

(pepiCc-pe, 127. 

(pepros, (peprepos, (pipra- 

Tos, 83. 
(/)6i'|e, 82. 

^I^V' 33- 

(p7]KdpL0P, 33. 

(pOdpu, 24, 187. 



2l6 



INDEX. 



(})6ivcaf 24. 
(})iKo(ro(pia, 196. 
(pirpov, (pyrpttf 22. 
(pKeidvia^ <pT€idvQ}, 34. 
(pKvdpLoVj (pTvdpiov, 34. 
(pXrjvds, (pXvvds, 22. 
(pXTlffKOvvi, 30. 
<pKi^(a, (pXi^Epou, 33. 
(pKov^LOV, 27. 
(pofBacrai, 12. 
(po^idj, 29. 
<po(ovix€vos, 119. 
^o/z/i{, 27, 
(^op|, 132. 
(pop4€T€, (popeTre^ 15^ 
^opedf]if€f 117. 
(pv^ovjjL^Vi (pv^co, 119. 
^uAayco, 37. 
(pvcis, 21. 



(jyvTevci), (piTvw, 29. 

Aa, 132. 

Xa/iaz, xa^ov, 145. 
XttM-n-A^j, xct-f^V^os, 37. 
hdvypovu, 132. 
xduoi}, x^^j 206. 
xdpis, hdpis, 118. 
Xdpos, XdpotiVTaSi 92. 
Zi^epe^ 132. 
X-fipa-v^, 117. 
Ai>5 132. 

XiTOJJ/, 40. 

XAa^us, 21. 
XovXidpioVy 40. 
XPVf^o.Tdwj 117. 
Xpvo'<^oi/j XpvcrovVi 15. 
X^rpa, 40. 



Xwp7^, 116. 

i//aKas, ipLxdKa, 12. 

rpavrepLV, 21. 

#s, 144. 

rprjKacpSj, 206. 

t(/?7Aos, ;|/i\3s, if/tA^r, 27^ 

206. 
^rjcpcoj 208. 

\f/ilJifivdLOV, xf/LfiixiOiov, 22. 
;f/o(^(iet, 92. 

&^€ov, 21. 
^Aaf, 24. 
wvofidffQai, 28. 
(ior, 21. 
wpa, 189. 
ajpa/ca, 1 28. 
WTiop, 24. 



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The Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith, LL.D. A new 

Edition, vi^ith Notes, by J. E. Thorold Rogers, M.A., formerly Professor of 
Political Economy, Oxford. 2 vols. Svo. cloth, 21s. 



MATHEMATICS, PHYSICAL SCIENCE, &c. 
An Account of Vesuvius, by John Phillips, M.A., F.R.S., 

Professor of Geology, Oxford. 1869. Crown Svo. cloth, los. 6d. 

Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus. By Bartholomew 

Price, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. 
Vol. I. Differential Calculus. Second Edition, 1858. Svo. cloth, 14s. 6d. 
Vol. II. Integral Calculus, Calculus of Variations, and Differential Equations. 
Second Edition, 1865. Svo. cloth, i8i-. 

Vol. III. Statics, including Attractions; Dynamics of a Material Particle. 

Seco7id Edition, 1868. Svo. cloth, -l6s. 
\o\. IV. Dynamics of Material Systems ; together with a Chapter on Theo- 
retical Dynamics, by W. F. Donkin, M.A., F.R.S. 1862. Svo. cloth, 16s. 



Clwinbwit Inss ^nitL 



The Delegates of the Clarendon Press having undertaken 
the publication of a series of works, chiefly educational, and 
entitled the S^IarentfOtt ^rtSS S^crUS, have published, or have 
in preparation, the following. 

Those to which prices are attached are already pttblished ; the others are in 
preparation. 

I. GREEK AND LATIK CLASSICS, &e. 
Greek Verbs, Irregular and Defective ; their forms, 

meaning', and quantity ; embracing- all the Tenses used by Greek -wTiters, with 
reference to the passages4n which they are found. By W. Veitch. ]>Jew and 
revised Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 8j-. 6d. 

The Elements of Greek Accentuation (for Schools) : 

abridg-ed from his larger work by H. AV. Chandler, M.A., Waynflete Professor 
of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, Oxford. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, "zs. 6d. 

Aeschines in Ctesiphonteni and Demosthenes de Corona. 

With Introduction and Notes. By G. A. Simcox, M.A., and W. H. Simcox, 
M.A., Fellows of Queen's College, Oxford. 

Aristotle's Politics. By W. L. Newman, M.A., Fellow 

and Lecturer of Balliol College, and Reader in Ancient History, Oxford. 

The Golden Treasury of Ancient Greek Poetry ; being a 

Collection of the finest passages in the Greek Classic Poets, with Introductory 
Notices and Notes. By R. S. AVright, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 
Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, Ss. 6d. 

A Golden Treasury of Greek Prose ; being a Collection of 

the finest passages in the principal Greek Prose Writers, with Introductory 
Notices and Notes. By R. S. Wright, M. A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford ; 
and J. E. I.. Shadwell, B.A., Senior Student of Christ Church. Ext. fcap. 8vo. 
cloth, j^s. 6d. Just published. 

Homer. Iliad. By D. B. Monro, MA., Fellow and Tutor 

of Oriel College, Oxford. 

Homer. Odyssey, Books I-XII. By W. W. Merry, MA., 

Fellow and Lecturer of Lincoln College, Oxford ; and the late James Riddell, 
M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 

Also a small edition for Schools, 



Clarendon Press Series, 



Homer. Odyssey, Books XIII-XXIV. By Robinson Ellis, 

M. A., Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. 

Plato. Selections (for Schools). With Notes, by B. Jowett, 

M.A., Regius Professor of Greek ; and J. Purves, M, A., Fellow and Lecturer 
of Balliol College, Oxford. 

Sophocles. Oedipus Rex : Dindorf 's Text, with Notes by 

the Ven. Archdeacon Basil Jones, M. A., formerly Fellow of University College, 
Oxford. Second Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. limj> cloth, is. 6d. 

Sophocles. By Lewis Campbell, M.A., Professor of Greek, 

St. Andrews, formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. 

Theocritus (for Schools). With Notes, by H. Snow, M.A., 

Assistant Master at Eton College, formerly Fellow of St. John's College, Cam- 
bridge. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, ^s. 6d. 

Xenophon. Selections (for Schools). With Notes and 

Maps, by J. S. Phillpotts, B.C. L., Assistant Master in Rugby School, formerly 
Fellow of New College, Oxford. 

Caesar. The Commentaries (for Schools). Part I. The 

Gallic War, with Notes, «Src., by Charles E. Moberly, M.A., Assistant Master 
in Rugby School ; formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. In the Press. 

Also, to follow : Part II. The Civil War : by the same Editor. 

Cicero's Philippic Orations. With Notes, by J. R. King, 

M.A., formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. Demy 8vo. 
cloth, \QS. 6d. 

Cicero pro Cluentio. With Introduction and Notes. By 

W. Ramsay, M.A. Edited by G. G. Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity, 
Glasgow. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3^. 6d. 

Cicero. Selection of interesting and descriptive passages. 

With Notes. By Henry Walford, M.A., Wadham College, Oxford, Assistant 
Master at Haileybary College. In three Parts. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, ^. 6d. 

Also sold separately. 

Part I. Anecdotes from Grecian and Roman History, cloth, is. 6d. 

Part II. Omens and Dreams : Beauties of Nature, cloth, is. 6d, 

Part III. Rome's Rule of her Provinces, cloth, is. 6d. 

Cicero. Select Letters. By Albert Watson, M.A., Fellow 

and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. In the Press. 

Cicero de Oratore. With Introduction and Notes. By 

A. S. Wilkins, M.A., Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester. 

Cicero and Pliny. Select Epistles (for Schools). With 

Notes by C. E. Prichard, M.A., formerly Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 



Clarendon Press Series. 



Cornelius HSTepos. With Notes, by Oscar Browning, M.A., 

Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Assistant Master at 3lon College. 
Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, -zs. 6d. 

Horace. With Notes and Introduction. By Edward C. 

Wickham, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford. 
Also a small edition for Schools. 

Livy, Books I-X. By J. R. Seeley, M.A., Fellow of Christ's 

College, and Regius Professor of Modern History, Cambridge. In the Press. 
Also a small edition for Schools. 

Ovid. Selections for the use of Schools. With Introduc- 
tions and Notes, and an Appendix on the Roman Calendar. By W. Ramsay, 
M.A. Edited by G. G. Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity, Glasgow. Ex't. 
fcap. 8vo. cloth, ^s. 6d. 

Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin. With Intro- 
duction, Notes, and Illustrations. By John Wordsworth, M.A., Brasenose 
College, Oxford. 

Selections from the less known Latin Poets. By North 

Pinder, M.A., formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Demy 8vo. cloth, 
X5S. 

Passages for Translation into Latin. For the use of 

Passmen and others. Selected by J. Y, Sargent, M.A., Tutor, formerly Fellow, 
of jNIagdalen College, Oxford. Second Edition. Ext fcap. 8vo. cloth, 2S. 6d. 



II. MENTAL AND MOHAL PHILOSOPHY. 
The Elements of Deductive Logic, designed mainly for 

the use of Junior Students in the Universities. By T. Fowler, M.A., Fellow 
and Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. Third Edition, with a Collection of 
Examples, Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, -^s. 6d. 

The Elements of Inductive Logic, designed mainly for 

the use of Students in the Universities. By the same Author. Ext. fcap. 8va 
cloth, 6s. 

A Manual of Political Economy, for the use of Schools. 

By J. E. Thorold Rogers, M.A., formerly Professor of Political Economy, 
Oxford. SecoJid Editio?i. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 4s. 6d. 



Ill, MATHEMATICS, &c. 
Acoustics. By W. F. Donkin, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian Pro- 

fessor of Astronomy, Oxford. Crown 8vo. cloth, js. 6d. 



Clarendon Press Series, 



An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions. By P. G. 

Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh ; 
formerly Fellow of St, Peter's College, Cambridge. Demy 8vo. cloth, t2s. 6d. 

Book-keeping. By R. G. C. Hamilton, Accountant to the 

Education Committee of the Privy Council, and John Ball (of the Firm of 
Messrs. Quilter, Ball, & Co.), Examiners in Book-keeping for the Society of 
Arts' Examination. Second Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. limp cloth, is. 6d. 

A Course of Lectures on Pure Geometry. By Henry J. 

Stephen Smith, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Balliol College, and Savilian Professor 
of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 

A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. By J. Clerk 

Maxwell, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, King's Col- 
lege, London. 

A Series of Elementary Works is being arranged, and will shortly be 
announced. 



IV. HISTOHY. 
A Manual of Ancient History. By George Rawlinson, 

M. A., Camden Professor of Ancient History, formerly Fellow of Exeter College, 
Oxford. Demy 8vo. cloth, x^^s. Jicst published. 

A History of Germany and of the Empire, down to the 

close of the Middle Ages. By J. Bryce, B.C.L., Fellow of Oriel College, 
Oxford. 

A History of Germany, from the Reformation. By Adol- 

phus W. Ward, M.A., Fellow of St. Peter's College, Cambridge, Professor of 
History, Owens College, Manchester. 

A History of British India. By S. W. Owen, M.A., Lee's 

Reader in Law and History, Christ Church, and Reader in Indian Law in the 
University of Oxford. 

A History of Greece. By E. A. Freeman, MA., formerly 

Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. 

A Constitutional History of England. By W. Stubbs, 

M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford. 

A History of France. By G. W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly 

Censor of Christ Church. 



V. LA-W. 

Commentaries on Roman Law ; from the original and the 

best modern sources. By H. J. Roby, M.A., formerly Fellow of St. John's 
College, Cambridge; Professor of Law at University College, London. 2 vols. 
Demy 8vo. 



Clarendon Press Series, 



VI. PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 

Katural Philosophy. In four volumes. By Sir W. Thom- 
son, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophj', Glasgow; and 
P. G. Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosoph5% Edinburgh; formerly Fel- 
lows of St. Peter's College, Cambridge. Vol. I. 8vo. cloth, il. ^s. 

By the same Authors, a smaller Work on the same subject, 

forming a complete Introduction to it, so far as it can be carried out with 
Elementary Geometry and Algebra. In the Press. 

I>escriptive Astronomy. A Handbook for the General 

Reader, and also for practical Observatory work. With 224 illustrations and 
numerous tables. By G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S., Barrister-at-Law. DemySvo. 
856 pp., cloth, \l. rs. 

Chemistry for Students. By A. W. Williamson, Phil. 

Doc, F. R.S., Professor of Chemistry, University College, London. A new 
Edition-, with Sohitio7is. Ext. fcap. Bvo. cloth, 8j. 6d. 

A Treatise on Heat, with numerous Woodcuts and Dia- 
grams. By Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Observatory at 
Kew. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, js. 6d. 

Forms of Animal Life. By G. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S., 

Linacre Professor of Ph3'sio!og)^ Oxford. Illustrated by Descriptions and 
Drawings of Dissections. Demy 8vo. cloth, 16s. 

Exercises in Practical Chemistry. By A. G. Vernon 

Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Senior Student of Christ Church, and Lee's Reader 
in Chemistry; and H. G. Madan, M.A., Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. 

Series I, Qualitative Exercises. Crown Bvo. cloth, -js. dd. 
Series II. Quantitative Exercises. 

The Valley of the Thames : its Physical Geography and 

Geology. By John Phillips, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Oxford. 
In the Press. 

Geology. By J. Phillips, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geo- 

logy, Oxford. 

Mechanics. By Bartholomew Price, M.A., F.R.S., Sedleian 

Professor of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. 

Optics. By R. B. Clifton, M.A„ F.R.S., Professor of Experi- 

mental Philosophy, Oxford ; formerly Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. 

Electricity. By W. Esson, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and 

INIathematical Lecturer of Merton College, Oxford. 

Crystallography. By M. H. N. Story-Maskelyne, M.A., 

Professor of Mineralogy, Oxford ; and Deputy Keeper in the Department of 
Minerals, British Museum. 



Mineralogy. By the same Author. 



lo Clarendon Press Series. 



Physiological Physics. By G. Griffith, M.A., Jesus Col- 
lege, Oxford, Assistant Secretary to the British Association, and Natural 
Science Master at Harrow School. 

Magnetism. 

VII. EJSTGLISH LANGUAGE AI^D LITERATUHE. 
A First Beading Pook. By Marie Eichens of Berlin ; and 

edited by Anne J. Clough. Ext. fcap. 8vo. sti^ covers, i^d. 

Oxford Beading Book, Part I. For Little Children. 

Ext. fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, 6d. 

Oxford Beading Book, Part II. For Junior Classes. 

Ext. fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, 6d. 

On the Principles of Grammar. By E. Thring, M.A., 

Head Master of Uppingham School. Ext. fcap. Bvo. cloth, a^. 6d. 

Grammatical Analysis, designed to serve as an Exercise 

and Composition Book in the English Language. By E. Thring, M.A., Head 
Master of Uppingham School. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3^-. 6d. 

Specimens of Early English ; being a Series of Extracts 

from the most important English Authors, Chronologically arranged, illustrative 
of the progress of the English Language and its Dialectic varieties, from A.D. 
1250 to A.b. 1400. "With Grammatical Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By 
R. Morris, Editor of " The Story of Genesis and Exodus," &c. Ext. fcap, 8vo. 
cloth, js. 6d. 

The "Vision of "William concerning Piers the Plowman, 

by William Langland. Edited, with Notes, by W. W. Skeat, M.A., formerly 
Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, /[s. 6d. 

The Philology of the English Tongue. By J. Earle, 

M. A., formerly Fellow of Oriel College, and Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Oxford. 
In the Press. 

Typical Selections from the best English Authors from the 

Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centurj% (to serve as a higher Reading Book,) with 
Introductory Notices and Notes, being a Contribution towards a History of 
English Literature. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, a,s. 6d. 

Specimens of the Scottish Language; being a Series of 

Annotated Extracts illustrative of the Literature and Philology of the Lowland 
Tongue from the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century. With Introduction 
and Glossary. By A. H. Burgess, M.A. 

See also XI. below for other English Classics. 



VIIL PBEjS^CH language and lilTERATUPE. 

Brachet's Historical Grammar of the French Language. 

Translated into English by G, W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly Censor of Christ 
Church. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 35-. 6d. 



Clarendon Press Series, 1 1 



Corneille's Cinna, and Moliere's Les Femmes Savantes. 

Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by Gustave Masson. Ext. fcap. 8vo. 
cloth, 2S. 6d. 

Racine's Andromaque, and Corneille's Le Menteur. With 

Louis Racine's Life of his Father. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 
2s. 6d. 

Moliere's Les Fourberies de Scapin, and Racine's Athalie. 

With Voltaire's Life of MoU^re. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 
2S. 6d. Just published. 

Selections from the Correspondence of Madame de Sevigne 

and her chief Contemporaries. Intended more especially for Girls' Schools. 
By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. Bvo. cloth, -^s. 

Voyage antour de ma Chambre, by Xavier de Maistre; 

Ourika, by MADAME DE DURAS; La Dot de Suzette, by FlEVEE ; Les Ju- 
meaux de I'Hotel Corneille, by liDMOND ABOUT ; Mesaventures d'un Ecolier, 
by RODOLPHE TOPFFER. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. Bvo. cloth, 0.5. 6d. 

A French Grammar. A Complete Theory of the French 

Language, with the rules in French and English, and numerous Examples to 
serve as first Exercises in the Language. By Jules Bue, Honorary M.A. of 
Oxford ; Taylorian Teacher of French, Oxford : Examiner in the Oxford Local 
Examinations from 1858. — 

A French. Grammar Test. A Book of Exercises on French 

Grammar; each Exercise being preceded by Grammatical Questions. By the 
same Author. 

Exercises in Translation No. i, from French into English, 

with general rules on Translation ; and containing Notes, Hints, and Cautions, 
founded on a comparison of the Grammar and Genius of the two Languages. 
By the same Author. 

Exercises in Translation No. 2, from English into French, 

on the same plan as the preceding book. By the same Author. 



IX. GERMAK LANGUAGE AISTD LITEBATUBE. 
Goethe's Egmont. With a Life of Goethe, &c. By Dr. 

Buchheim, Professor of the German Language and Literature in King's Col- 
lege, London ; and Examiner in German to the University of London. Extra 
fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3^-. 

Schiller's Wilhelm Tell. With a Life of Schiller ; an histo- 
rical and critical Introduction, Arguments, and a complete Commentary. By 
the same Editor. In the Press. 

Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm. A Comedy. With a Life 

of Lessing, Critical Commentary, &c. By the same Editor. 



12 Clarendon Press Series, 



X. AKT, &c. 

A Handbook of Pictorial Art. By R. St. J. Tyrwhitt, 

M.A., formerly Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. With coloured 
Illustrations, Photographs, and a chapter on Perspective by A. Macdonald. 
8vo. half77iorocco, i8j. 

A Treatise on Harmony. By Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, 

Bart., M.A., Mus. Doc, Professor of Music in the University of Oxford, 4to. 
cloth, los. 

A Treatise on Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue, based 

upon that of Cherubini. By the same Author. 4to. cloth, i6j-. 

A System of Physical Education : Theoretical and Prac- 
tical. By Archibald Maclaren, The Gymnasium, Oxford. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
cloth, js. 6d. 

The Cultivation of the Speaking Voice. By John Hullrlu 

Crown 8vo. cloth, ^s. 6d. jfust published. 



XI. ENGLISH CLASSICS. 

Designed to meet the <wants of Students in English Lite- 
rature : under the superintendence of the Rev. J. S. 
Brewer, M.A., of Queen's College^ Oxford^ and Professor 
of English Literature at King's College, London, 

There are two dangers to which the student of English Lite- 
rature is exposed at the outset of his task ; — his reading is apt to 
be too narrow or too diffuse. 

Out of the vast number of authors set before him in books 
professing to deal with this subject he knows not which to select : 
he thinks he must read a little of all ; he soon abandons so hope- 
less an attempt ; he ends by contenting himself with second-hand 
information ; and professing to study English Literature, he fails 
to master a single English author. On the other hand, by con- 
fining his attention to one or two writers, or to one special period 
of English Literature, the student narrows his view of it ; he fails 
to grasp the subject as a whole ; and in so doing misses one of 
the chief objects of his study. 



Clarendon Press Series, 1 3 

How may these errors be avoided ? How may minute reading 
be combined with comprehensiveness of view ? 

In the hope of furnishing an answer to these questions the 
Delegates of the Press, acting upon the advice and experience of 
Professor Brewer, have determined to issue a series of small 
volumes, which shall embrace, in a convenient form and at a 
low price, the general extent of English Literature, as repre- 
sented in its masterpieces at successive epochs. It is thought 
that the student, by confining himself, in the first instance, to 
those authors who are most worthy of his attention, will be 
saved from the dangers of hasty and indiscriminate reading. By 
adopting the course thus marked out for him, he will become 
familiar with the productions of the greatest minds in English 
Literature ; and should he never be able to pursue the subject 
beyond the limits here-prescribed, he will have laid the founda- 
tion of accurate habits of thought and judgment, which cannot 
fail of being serviceable to him hereafter. 

The authors and works selected are such as will best serve to 
illustrate English Literature in its historical aspect. As * the eye 
of history,' without which history cannot be understood, the 
literature of a nation is the clearest and most intelligible record 
of its life. Its thoughts and its emotions, its graver and its less 
serious modes, its progress, or its degeneracy, are told by its best 
authors in their best words. This view of the subject will sug- 
gest the safest rules for the study of it. 

With one exception all writers before the Reformation are 
excluded from the Series. However great may be the value of 
literature before that epoch, it is not completely national. For 
it had no common organ of language; it addressed itself to 
special classes ; it dealt mainly with special subjects. Again ; of 
writers who flourished after the Reformation, who were popular 
in their day, and reflected the manners and sentiments of their 



14 Clarendon Press Series, 

age, the larger part by far must be excluded from our list. 
Common sense tells us that if young persons, who have but a 
limited time at their disposal, read Marlowe or Greene, Burton, 
Hakewill or Du Bartas, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton will be 
com^paratively neglected. 

Keeping, then, to the best authors in each epoch — and here 
popular estimation is a safe guide — the student v/ill find the fol- 
lowing Hst of writers amply sufficient for his purpose : Chaucer, 
Spenser, Hooker, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Dryden, Bunyan, 
Pope, Johnson, Burke, and Cowper. In other words, Chaucer is 
the exponent of the Middle Ages in England ; Spenser of the 
Reformation and the Tudors ; Hooker of the latter years of 
Elizabeth ; Shakespeare and Bacon of the transition from Tudor 
to Stuart ; Milton of Charles I and the Commonwealth ; Dryden 
and Bunyan of the Restoration ; Pope of Anne and the House 
of Hanover ; Johnson, Burke, and Cowper of the reign of 
George HI to the close of the last century. 

The list could be easily enlarged ; the names of Jeremy 
Taylor, Clarendon, Hobbes, Locke, Swift, Addison, Goldsmith, 
and others are omitted. But in so wide a field, the difficulty is 
to keep the series from becoming unwieldy, without diminishing 
its comprehensiveness. Hereafter, should the plan prove to be 
useful, some of the masterpieces of the authors just mentioned 
may be added to the list. 

The task of selection is not yet finished. For purposes of 
education, it would neither be possible, nor, if possible, desirable, 
to place in the hands of students the whole of the works of the 
authors we have chosen. We must set before them only the 
masterpieces of literature, and their studies must be directed, not 
only to the greatest minds, but to their choicest productions. 
These are to be read again and again, separately and in combina- 
tion. Their purport, form, language, bearing on the times, must 



Clarendon Press Series. ig 

be minutely studied, till the student begins to recognise the full 
value of each work both in itself and in its relations to those that 
go before and those that follow it. 

It is especially hoped that this Series may prove useful to 
Ladies' Schools and Middle Class Schools ; in which English 
Literature must always be a leading subject of instruction. 



A General Introduction to the Series. By Professor 

Brewer, M.A. 

1. Chaucer. The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales : The 

Knightes Tale ; The Nonne Prest his Tale. Edited by R. Morris, Editor for 
the "Early English Text Society, &c., See. Second Ediiion. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
cloth, 2s. 6d. 

2. Spenser's Faery Queene. Books I and XL Designed 

chiefly for the use of Schools. With Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By 
G. W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly Censor of Christ Church. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
cloth, 2S. 6d. each. 

3. Hooker. Ecclesiastical Polity, Book I. Edited by R. W. 

Church, M.A., Rector of Whatley ; formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 
Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, "zs. 

4. Shakespeare. Select Plays. Edited by W. G. Clark, 

M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Public Orator ; and W. Aldis 
Wright, M.A., Librarian of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

I. The Merchant of Venice. Extra fcap. 8vo. slipcovers, zs. 

II. Richard the Second. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiffcovers, \s. 6d. 

III. Macbeth. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, xs. 6d. 

5. Bacon. Advancement of Learning. Edited by W. Aldis 

Wright, M.A. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 4s. 6d. 

6. Milton. Poems. Edited by R. C. Browne, MA., and 

Associate of King's College, London. 2 vols. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 6s. 6d. 
Just published. 

7. Dry den. Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell ; 

Astraea Redux; Annus Mirabilis; Absalom and Achitophel ; Religio Laici ; 
Tlie Hind and Panther, Edited by W. D. Christie, M.A., Trinity College, 
Cambridge. In the Press. 

8. Bunyan. Grace Abounding; The Pilgrim's Progress. 

Edited by E. Venables, M.A., Canon of Lincoln. 



1 6 Clarendon Press Series, 



9. Pope. With Introduction and Notes. By Mark Pattison, 

B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. 

I. Essay on Man. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, \s. 6d. 
II. Epistles and Satires. 

10. Johnson. Rasselas; Lives of Pope and Dryden. Edited 

by C. H. O. Daniel, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford. 

11. Burke. Thoughts on the Present Discontents; the Two 

Speeches on America ; Reflections on the French Revolution. By Mark Patti- 
son, B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. 

12. CoTTTper. The Task, and some of his minor Poems. 

Edited by J. C. Shairp, M.A., Principal of the United Colleges, St. Andrews. 



Published for the University by 
MACMILLAlSr AND CO., LONDON. 



The Delegates of the Press invite suggestions and advice 
from all persons interested in education; and will be thankful 
for hints, &c., addressed to either the Rev. G. W. Kitchin, 

St. Giles's Road East, Oxford, or the Secretary to the 

Delegates, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 



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